Youth Home
(General Article)
Indian tribal groups are progressive regarding their youth. They believe in perfection of
youth training, which is fulfilled by youth homes. Though many tribal groups have youth
homes, it is not common. Youth home (a place where the young male and the female of
the tribe live) have different names. Among the Konyak Naga of the northeastern state it
is Ban for males and Yo for females, Arichu and Memis in Aao Naga for both sexes,
Ekuchi for male and Eloichi for females, Kichuki for Angami Naga of the northeast.
Rangbang among the Bhotia (a tribe of Uttaranchal) is used for socio-cultural training
and Gitiora in Munda and Ho tribe of north India, Ghumkuria or Jonkarpa in Oranav of
Bihar, Chhangar basa in Bhuia of Bihar, Ghotual in Gond of Bihar.
Morang (youth home) of the Garo tribe of northeast is known as Nok-Pante (home of the
unmarried) and Darbar in the Juang of Orissa.
Kurumba of Tamil Nadu also make Pundal mane (youth home). Women come in Mane
(home) only at night. Yurali of South India have Chiltalpore (only for males), whereas
Banagiri is for women.
Youth homes of Kota of South India and Selanidingo of Bondo tribe of Orrisa permits
married male and women.
Every youth home is concerned with the socio-cultural training of the youth of the tribe,
but sexual relations are permitted and common. Pregnancy is avoided and is not
considered a good action. The tribal community follows some prohibitions (taboos)
during pregnancy. In such a situation, the husband of the pregnant woman and her
previous children (if any) are kept separate (in the youth home) from her.
Community rituals, customs and every tradition are taught by the elderly to the youth,
which makes for a perfect generation.
Muria male (tribe of Bihar) can’t live with his wife until his child bears a normal navel.
Prohibition continues in many tribal societies till the breast feeding of the newborn child.
In general, the youth homes are constructed on the border of the village. It is colored and
decorated building, which is also used for those who are far or outside of their general
homes due to some prohibition (especially pregnancy cases). Dancing, story telling and
folklore are the different programmes of the youth homes.
The residents of the youth homes are divided into seniors, who know the socio-cultural
life of the concerned tribe and the juniors, who have to learn the rituals and customs of
the tribes. Membership of the youth homes is compulsory for every tribal youth that has
acquired ten years of age and they stay there till before they get married. Kota of south
India is an exception where married males and females are also permitted.
Youth homes are used during the night. The activities during the night are not told to any
one. Privacy and secrecy are the main factors in the youth homes.
Muria (a tribe of Bihar) senior (unmarried) women give sex education to juniors of either
sex. They avoid pregnancy. They believe their youth home god “Lingo” will be angry
and in the occurrence of any pregnancy they carry out sacrifices to appease Lingo.
The process of acculturation, urbanization and modernization are vanishing these unique
youth homes in tribal India. Even the Ho tribe denies any existence of Gitiora (youth
homes).
Government agencies are using these youth homes for the dissemination of government
policies and information.
Saturday, September 19, 2009
Padhar tribe
Padhar
It is a tribal group of the western region of India in the Ahmedabad district with a
population of 9,056 (1946 families) (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1:0.9.
There are concentrated in only twelve villages of these districts. They are believed to be
descendents of Padhiyar (assistant to the Bhua – priest who worships the Hinglaj
goddess).
It is a patriarchal nuclear family based society. The size of the family is 6 to 8 members.
They are divided into many gotra.
They have proto-australoid physical features and their language is Padhari (austric
language family).
Birth Ceremony
In the third month of the pregnancy the Dharna ritual is celebrated and worship Hinglaj
mata (main goddess of Padhar) with symbolic sacrifice of pumpkin (they do not kill
animals). Janana ritual is celebrated at the time of the birth of the child. They worship
Mengri goddess and offer symbolic sacrifice. At the time of the birth the baby is fed with
goat milk, which is believed to be the blessing of Mengri mata goddess. One month after
the birth they give khana-pani (dinner) to the community. The women do not follow any
taboo (prohibition) during the pregnancy.
Marriage Ceremony
They are gotra exogamous. They even do not prefer to marriage within a village (they
consider very male and female within the village as their brother and sister). Consent,
service (when the groom is unable to pay the bride wealth and works for his father-inlaw)
and elopement marriage are common among them. In elopement marriage the
bridegroom side has to pay Rs. 2500 each to the bride’s father side and the traditional
panchayat. The high compensation is meant to check such marriages. All marriages are
based on bride wealth. The maternal uncle plays a vital role in the whole marriage. The
marriage ceremony starts with Kahawa ritual (proposal for marriage from the bridegroom
side) and ends with Gavan (departure of the bride to the groom’s house). Bangles and
Tota (round shaped ornament in the middle of bride’s head). After every ritual bhoj
(dinner) and symbolic sacrifice is done. Widow and levirate marriages are also in
practice.
Death Ceremony
They bury dead children below the age of five. All other dead people are burnt. Death
ceremony is spread over three days. On the first day the Agni ritual (burning of the dead
body) is carried out. The second day is celebrated as a sacred day when the soul attains a
sacred position in the heaven. On that day they pray and sing songs for the deceased. On
the third day, they give a bhoj accompanied with sweets to the community. All articles of
the dead person are given to his niece or nephew. On the twelfth day after the death,
shudhi ritual is done. The remains of the dead person are collected and dipped in the
voutha village fair, which is confluence of seven rivers.
Economy
Padhar’s economy is based on Koli (an agriculturist tribe living in the Padhar villages),
for whom they serve as laborers. They also work as daily wage laborers in urban areas.
The whole tribe lives around the Nal Sarovar (a big lake which is a famous bird
sanctuary). They earn from boating, fishing (Rs. 60 – 70 per day) and obtain edible seeds
(thek, beed, etc) from the lake in the summer, when the lake dries up. They sell this at
around Rs. 40 - 50 per kg.
Political Organization
Baithal (panchayat) is constituted of 5 to 6 members including its chief. A Hawaldar is
appointed to assist the chief of every village. Every village panchayat mainly hears
marriage disputes. All the twelve villages then elect a sarpanch (head) who hears the
disputes between two or more villages. Now the Panchayati raj system has replaced this
traditional panchayat to some extent.
Religion
They worship all Hindu gods and goddess (Ram, Krishna, Shiva, Vishnu, Durga,
Lakshami, Parvati, Sita, etc.). They also worship there traditional deities as Hinglaj mata
(goddess of the tribe), Mengri mata (goddess of the children), Kalka mata (goddess of
epidemic), But mata (goddess of ghost), Amba mata (goddess of welfare), Meldi mata
(goddess of cattle) and Chamunda mata (goddess of village).
Padhari dance is very famous and has been organized thrice in the Indian Republic day
parade in New Delhi.
They play a game like hockey, which is there traditional game.
Education
Every village has a junior high school. Literacy ratio is 11.2% (1991 census). They are
very much aware about there children’s education.
Many villages are getting water through Kalyan Garh project. Ranagarh is equipped with
a post office, a telephone exchange and a primary health center, in which a Padhari
woman is working as a trained nurse. The government is giving them land (100 square
feet) and money (Rs. 12,500) for construction of houses. 40 houses in Nani Kathachi, 10
in Ranagarh and 100 houses in Jasmalpur village have been constructed under the Adim
Jutha project (a government project).
They are familiar to modern life and are taking many benefits from government agencies.
It is a tribal group of the western region of India in the Ahmedabad district with a
population of 9,056 (1946 families) (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1:0.9.
There are concentrated in only twelve villages of these districts. They are believed to be
descendents of Padhiyar (assistant to the Bhua – priest who worships the Hinglaj
goddess).
It is a patriarchal nuclear family based society. The size of the family is 6 to 8 members.
They are divided into many gotra.
They have proto-australoid physical features and their language is Padhari (austric
language family).
Birth Ceremony
In the third month of the pregnancy the Dharna ritual is celebrated and worship Hinglaj
mata (main goddess of Padhar) with symbolic sacrifice of pumpkin (they do not kill
animals). Janana ritual is celebrated at the time of the birth of the child. They worship
Mengri goddess and offer symbolic sacrifice. At the time of the birth the baby is fed with
goat milk, which is believed to be the blessing of Mengri mata goddess. One month after
the birth they give khana-pani (dinner) to the community. The women do not follow any
taboo (prohibition) during the pregnancy.
Marriage Ceremony
They are gotra exogamous. They even do not prefer to marriage within a village (they
consider very male and female within the village as their brother and sister). Consent,
service (when the groom is unable to pay the bride wealth and works for his father-inlaw)
and elopement marriage are common among them. In elopement marriage the
bridegroom side has to pay Rs. 2500 each to the bride’s father side and the traditional
panchayat. The high compensation is meant to check such marriages. All marriages are
based on bride wealth. The maternal uncle plays a vital role in the whole marriage. The
marriage ceremony starts with Kahawa ritual (proposal for marriage from the bridegroom
side) and ends with Gavan (departure of the bride to the groom’s house). Bangles and
Tota (round shaped ornament in the middle of bride’s head). After every ritual bhoj
(dinner) and symbolic sacrifice is done. Widow and levirate marriages are also in
practice.
Death Ceremony
They bury dead children below the age of five. All other dead people are burnt. Death
ceremony is spread over three days. On the first day the Agni ritual (burning of the dead
body) is carried out. The second day is celebrated as a sacred day when the soul attains a
sacred position in the heaven. On that day they pray and sing songs for the deceased. On
the third day, they give a bhoj accompanied with sweets to the community. All articles of
the dead person are given to his niece or nephew. On the twelfth day after the death,
shudhi ritual is done. The remains of the dead person are collected and dipped in the
voutha village fair, which is confluence of seven rivers.
Economy
Padhar’s economy is based on Koli (an agriculturist tribe living in the Padhar villages),
for whom they serve as laborers. They also work as daily wage laborers in urban areas.
The whole tribe lives around the Nal Sarovar (a big lake which is a famous bird
sanctuary). They earn from boating, fishing (Rs. 60 – 70 per day) and obtain edible seeds
(thek, beed, etc) from the lake in the summer, when the lake dries up. They sell this at
around Rs. 40 - 50 per kg.
Political Organization
Baithal (panchayat) is constituted of 5 to 6 members including its chief. A Hawaldar is
appointed to assist the chief of every village. Every village panchayat mainly hears
marriage disputes. All the twelve villages then elect a sarpanch (head) who hears the
disputes between two or more villages. Now the Panchayati raj system has replaced this
traditional panchayat to some extent.
Religion
They worship all Hindu gods and goddess (Ram, Krishna, Shiva, Vishnu, Durga,
Lakshami, Parvati, Sita, etc.). They also worship there traditional deities as Hinglaj mata
(goddess of the tribe), Mengri mata (goddess of the children), Kalka mata (goddess of
epidemic), But mata (goddess of ghost), Amba mata (goddess of welfare), Meldi mata
(goddess of cattle) and Chamunda mata (goddess of village).
Padhari dance is very famous and has been organized thrice in the Indian Republic day
parade in New Delhi.
They play a game like hockey, which is there traditional game.
Education
Every village has a junior high school. Literacy ratio is 11.2% (1991 census). They are
very much aware about there children’s education.
Many villages are getting water through Kalyan Garh project. Ranagarh is equipped with
a post office, a telephone exchange and a primary health center, in which a Padhari
woman is working as a trained nurse. The government is giving them land (100 square
feet) and money (Rs. 12,500) for construction of houses. 40 houses in Nani Kathachi, 10
in Ranagarh and 100 houses in Jasmalpur village have been constructed under the Adim
Jutha project (a government project).
They are familiar to modern life and are taking many benefits from government agencies.
Nayak tribe
Nayak
It is the largest tribe in the western region, who are living in the Surat, Bharoch and
Rajapipala districts of Gujarat State with a huge population of 3,01,17,475 (1991 census).
Their sex ratio is 1:1.6.
Nayak are living in adjacent areas of Rajasthan using the name Naykada.
Uncha, Neecha and Cholivala are three categories of Nayak and many subdivisions of
these three are also in light.
It is a patriarchal society. They are of pro-australoid race and speak Gujarati language
(austric language family).
Birth Ceremony
Anachhe ritual is celebrated in the second month of the pregnancy. They worship Feni
Mata (Goddess of the family) and give a dinner to the community men. Pariya is
celebrated at the time of the birth and a bhoj (dinner) is organized is the honor of the
forefathers and as well as the community men. Pregnant woman is bound by many social
prohibitions (taboo) and lives in a separate hut.
Marriage Ceremony
Uncha Nayak man can marry with Neecha and Choliwala Nayak woman, but Neecha
man cannot marry with Uncha woman (as in the Hindu caste system). They are gotra
exogamous. Marriage is settled on the basis of Kharcha (bride wealth). Consent and
elopement marriages are in existence. The bride can deny marrying with an undesired
man. Second marriage is common. Vermilion is used as a sign of marriage. The marriage
ceremony starts with mangni ritual (demand of bride) and ends with chalai (departure of
the bride with the bridegroom) and a bhoj to the community men.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body and bury the unmarried men and women. They set fire to the
pyre at the leg (in the Hindu custom, this is done at the mouth). They beat drums and
dance in the procession for taking the dead body (irrespective of dead person’s age), to
the crematorium. On the eleventh day after the death, they make a statue of stone or wood
of the dead person and again burn it. It symbolic farewell to the soul of the dead person.
Daswa (a ritual on the tenth day after the death), they offer a dinner to the community
men.
Religion
They worship their traditional gods and goddesses once in a year (not as Hindus worship
every day). Their main gods are Baba Tundava (god of welfare) and Vmoriyo (god of
disease). Their main goddesses are Feni mata (goddesses of family), Merai mata (goddess
of death) and Dhanbai mata (goddesses of money).
They also worship Shiva (the main god of Hindus) and Parvati (wife of Shiva).
Holi (festival of colors) and Deepawali (festival of lights) are celebrated among them,
which have borrowed from Hindus.
Garba folk dance is very popular among them.
Economy
It is primarily a laborer group. Every sphere of their life is bound with physical labor.
They are economically very poor.
Education
They are very poor so education is not proper among them. Only 3.8% children are
taking primary education (1991 census). Five primary schools and one junior high school
are in their living areas.
Acculturation is very clear among them. They are familiar with all modern assets, which
is creating an awareness regarding education. Panchayati raj system has been established
and they are taking loans and have established vegetable and local necessity based shops.
It is the largest tribe in the western region, who are living in the Surat, Bharoch and
Rajapipala districts of Gujarat State with a huge population of 3,01,17,475 (1991 census).
Their sex ratio is 1:1.6.
Nayak are living in adjacent areas of Rajasthan using the name Naykada.
Uncha, Neecha and Cholivala are three categories of Nayak and many subdivisions of
these three are also in light.
It is a patriarchal society. They are of pro-australoid race and speak Gujarati language
(austric language family).
Birth Ceremony
Anachhe ritual is celebrated in the second month of the pregnancy. They worship Feni
Mata (Goddess of the family) and give a dinner to the community men. Pariya is
celebrated at the time of the birth and a bhoj (dinner) is organized is the honor of the
forefathers and as well as the community men. Pregnant woman is bound by many social
prohibitions (taboo) and lives in a separate hut.
Marriage Ceremony
Uncha Nayak man can marry with Neecha and Choliwala Nayak woman, but Neecha
man cannot marry with Uncha woman (as in the Hindu caste system). They are gotra
exogamous. Marriage is settled on the basis of Kharcha (bride wealth). Consent and
elopement marriages are in existence. The bride can deny marrying with an undesired
man. Second marriage is common. Vermilion is used as a sign of marriage. The marriage
ceremony starts with mangni ritual (demand of bride) and ends with chalai (departure of
the bride with the bridegroom) and a bhoj to the community men.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body and bury the unmarried men and women. They set fire to the
pyre at the leg (in the Hindu custom, this is done at the mouth). They beat drums and
dance in the procession for taking the dead body (irrespective of dead person’s age), to
the crematorium. On the eleventh day after the death, they make a statue of stone or wood
of the dead person and again burn it. It symbolic farewell to the soul of the dead person.
Daswa (a ritual on the tenth day after the death), they offer a dinner to the community
men.
Religion
They worship their traditional gods and goddesses once in a year (not as Hindus worship
every day). Their main gods are Baba Tundava (god of welfare) and Vmoriyo (god of
disease). Their main goddesses are Feni mata (goddesses of family), Merai mata (goddess
of death) and Dhanbai mata (goddesses of money).
They also worship Shiva (the main god of Hindus) and Parvati (wife of Shiva).
Holi (festival of colors) and Deepawali (festival of lights) are celebrated among them,
which have borrowed from Hindus.
Garba folk dance is very popular among them.
Economy
It is primarily a laborer group. Every sphere of their life is bound with physical labor.
They are economically very poor.
Education
They are very poor so education is not proper among them. Only 3.8% children are
taking primary education (1991 census). Five primary schools and one junior high school
are in their living areas.
Acculturation is very clear among them. They are familiar with all modern assets, which
is creating an awareness regarding education. Panchayati raj system has been established
and they are taking loans and have established vegetable and local necessity based shops.
Kawar tribe
Kawar
(Western Region)
This tribal group is living in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan with a population of 14,279
(1991 census) and sex ratio of 1:0.93.
They are sub divided into Dudharu, Kawar, Pakira and Rathia Kawar. They have many
gotras (a name of forefather on which a descendent group follow some prohibitions and
behave as brothers and sisters).
Their physical features are proto-australoid (Kawar and Pakira) and Dravidian (Dudharu
and Rathia) racial stocks (medium to long stature, yellowish to brown skin, scanty skin
hair and narrow nose).
They speak Mewari (a language of the Rajasthani language group).
Birth Ceremony
The pregnant women follow some taboo from the seventh month of the pregnancy till the
birth of the child. The birth ceremony is celebrated over a period of four days. They
worship Mati mata (earth goddess) as goddess of fertility. They offer liquor and food
(especially bread) to her. On the fourth day, a dinner is given to the community. One
month after the birth, the mother takes a sacred bath and the family worship Mati mata.
Marriage Ceremony
They are a gotra exogamous group. Consent and surrogate marriages are in practice.
Widow and levirate marriages are also in light. The bride has to be proposed in marriage
by the bridegroom’s parents. During settlement of marriage, feasting and performances of
certain religious rites take place. The marriage may take place a few years after the
engagement. Both sides meet their own expenses. Kanya puja (the bridegroom’s party
washes the feet of the bride) and vara puja (the bride’s party washes the feet of the
groom) rituals are performed with feasting and drinking (liquor made by Mahua seeds).
The marriage ends. Bride wealth acts as the prime factor in the settlement of marriage.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Matti ritual is celebrated on the first of cremation. Chulah ritual
(farewell to the soul) is celebrated on the third day. A feast is given to the community.
Food is not prepared in the dead person’s home up to ten days after the death. After the
death they make a menhir (an upright stone on the cremation site) in the memory of the
dead person.
Religion
They follow Hindu gods (Ram, Krishna, Shiva) and goddesses (Durga and Parvati) but
Christianity has spread to some extent among them (7%). Christian missionaries are
engaged in the work of conversion.
Economy
Their economy is mainly based on agriculture. In the absence of cultivation, manual labor
and house service fulfils their economic necessity. Hunting and food gathering are also in
practice. They practice Bewar (shifting) cultivation.
Education
Maximum Kawars (2.7%) are primary school educated. 6 primary schools, 2 junior high
schools and one high school are in their locality (Udaipur and adjoining areas).
Political Organization
Baithak – traditional panchayat of 3 members, is in influence. It hears marriage and land
disputes. Now Panchayati raj system is taking its shape in the villages.
Kawar require encouragement for improvement and they can do much of the work in this
direction. They are familiar with modernity but poverty is a barrier for them to acquire it.
Kawar mainly require facilities for improvement and proper opening for their careers in
different fields.
(Western Region)
This tribal group is living in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan with a population of 14,279
(1991 census) and sex ratio of 1:0.93.
They are sub divided into Dudharu, Kawar, Pakira and Rathia Kawar. They have many
gotras (a name of forefather on which a descendent group follow some prohibitions and
behave as brothers and sisters).
Their physical features are proto-australoid (Kawar and Pakira) and Dravidian (Dudharu
and Rathia) racial stocks (medium to long stature, yellowish to brown skin, scanty skin
hair and narrow nose).
They speak Mewari (a language of the Rajasthani language group).
Birth Ceremony
The pregnant women follow some taboo from the seventh month of the pregnancy till the
birth of the child. The birth ceremony is celebrated over a period of four days. They
worship Mati mata (earth goddess) as goddess of fertility. They offer liquor and food
(especially bread) to her. On the fourth day, a dinner is given to the community. One
month after the birth, the mother takes a sacred bath and the family worship Mati mata.
Marriage Ceremony
They are a gotra exogamous group. Consent and surrogate marriages are in practice.
Widow and levirate marriages are also in light. The bride has to be proposed in marriage
by the bridegroom’s parents. During settlement of marriage, feasting and performances of
certain religious rites take place. The marriage may take place a few years after the
engagement. Both sides meet their own expenses. Kanya puja (the bridegroom’s party
washes the feet of the bride) and vara puja (the bride’s party washes the feet of the
groom) rituals are performed with feasting and drinking (liquor made by Mahua seeds).
The marriage ends. Bride wealth acts as the prime factor in the settlement of marriage.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Matti ritual is celebrated on the first of cremation. Chulah ritual
(farewell to the soul) is celebrated on the third day. A feast is given to the community.
Food is not prepared in the dead person’s home up to ten days after the death. After the
death they make a menhir (an upright stone on the cremation site) in the memory of the
dead person.
Religion
They follow Hindu gods (Ram, Krishna, Shiva) and goddesses (Durga and Parvati) but
Christianity has spread to some extent among them (7%). Christian missionaries are
engaged in the work of conversion.
Economy
Their economy is mainly based on agriculture. In the absence of cultivation, manual labor
and house service fulfils their economic necessity. Hunting and food gathering are also in
practice. They practice Bewar (shifting) cultivation.
Education
Maximum Kawars (2.7%) are primary school educated. 6 primary schools, 2 junior high
schools and one high school are in their locality (Udaipur and adjoining areas).
Political Organization
Baithak – traditional panchayat of 3 members, is in influence. It hears marriage and land
disputes. Now Panchayati raj system is taking its shape in the villages.
Kawar require encouragement for improvement and they can do much of the work in this
direction. They are familiar with modernity but poverty is a barrier for them to acquire it.
Kawar mainly require facilities for improvement and proper opening for their careers in
different fields.
KANJAR
Kanjar (Kahan Chara)
(Western Region)
This group is living in Ajmer, Jaipur and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan. They are divided
in four subgroups (Jallads, Koochbands, Stonecutter and Raxhband) with a total of twelve
subdivisions (Kucch-bandh, Nat, Trukta, Beria, Beldar, Chrmarmangt, Sansiya, Dom,
Bhatu, Yalaudar, Bahelia and Jogi). They have a population of 65,188 (1991 census) and
sex ratio is 1:1.
Their physical features resemble with proto australoid racial group. They have a
patriarchal society.
They speak a mixture of Hindi and Rajasthani (austric group).
Birth Ceremony
It is customary among Kanjars that two or three days after the birth of a child, the mother
comes out with her child and after dipping her finger in her own urine touches the child’s
forehead. They believe that after this ceremony, the child becomes free form evil spirits.
On the sixth day, the women of the caste are entertained and wine is sprinkled on all
household articles to purify them.
Marriage Ceremony
Purchase and consent marriages are in practice. Bride wealth is different in widow and
normal marriage (Rs. 500/- for widow marriage and Rs. 200/- for normal marriage).
Panchayat plays a vital role in the fixing of bride wealth. Service marriage is common
due to the inability to pay bride wealth. Levirate marriage is also in practice.
Death Ceremony
Usually dead bodies are buried. The corpses of vaccinated people are cremated and those
of the rest are buried. Death ceremony ends with the farewell of the soul. Wine is served
to community members at the farewell dinner.
Religion
Unlike other primitive tribes, Kanjar also believe in a host of gods and goddesses (Sanga
devta – god of voice and Prithvi mata – earth goddess) and have much faith in ancestral
spirits. When somebody falls ill, it is an indication of displeasure of an ancestor and to
satisfy the spirits, they do their best to propitiate it. It is customary amongst them to bury
delicious edibles like soup, pork, wine, etc., on road crossing.
They worship fire and water as gods. People suspected of crimes are put to the test of fire
and water ordeals and those come out of these unscathed are considered innocent. The
Peepal tree is worshipped as God (if a Kanjar is wrong or false, he will never dare to
assert his truthfulness before this sacred tree). They believe in omens, when they start out
on professional work. Now Kanjars worship Ram, Krishna and Shiva (Hindu gods) and
Durga and Lakshmi (Hindu goddesses).
Economy
It is an occupational group, who are engaged in stone cutting, road dancing, plays and
sometimes, magic shows.
Political Organization
Their panchayat comprised of 5 to 7 members hear all disputes. Whenever there are
disputed claims or any breach of any social etiquette, the party or parties concerned call
the tribal panchayat. Cases of intra-tribal immorality are strictly controlled by it. Cases of
extra- immorality are mostly overlooked, as they are essential for fresh recruitment and
for getting useful information for the tribal.
Education
1.6% Kanjars are literate, while their locality is packed with primary, junior and inter
colleges. Their low literacy is due to their poverty.
Kanjars economy is influenced by urban areas, which are making them aware about
modernity, but due to the nomadic life, they are unable to take government facilities
(loans for trade, house, etc.). In Jaipur, rehabilitation program is going on for their
betterment.
(Western Region)
This group is living in Ajmer, Jaipur and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan. They are divided
in four subgroups (Jallads, Koochbands, Stonecutter and Raxhband) with a total of twelve
subdivisions (Kucch-bandh, Nat, Trukta, Beria, Beldar, Chrmarmangt, Sansiya, Dom,
Bhatu, Yalaudar, Bahelia and Jogi). They have a population of 65,188 (1991 census) and
sex ratio is 1:1.
Their physical features resemble with proto australoid racial group. They have a
patriarchal society.
They speak a mixture of Hindi and Rajasthani (austric group).
Birth Ceremony
It is customary among Kanjars that two or three days after the birth of a child, the mother
comes out with her child and after dipping her finger in her own urine touches the child’s
forehead. They believe that after this ceremony, the child becomes free form evil spirits.
On the sixth day, the women of the caste are entertained and wine is sprinkled on all
household articles to purify them.
Marriage Ceremony
Purchase and consent marriages are in practice. Bride wealth is different in widow and
normal marriage (Rs. 500/- for widow marriage and Rs. 200/- for normal marriage).
Panchayat plays a vital role in the fixing of bride wealth. Service marriage is common
due to the inability to pay bride wealth. Levirate marriage is also in practice.
Death Ceremony
Usually dead bodies are buried. The corpses of vaccinated people are cremated and those
of the rest are buried. Death ceremony ends with the farewell of the soul. Wine is served
to community members at the farewell dinner.
Religion
Unlike other primitive tribes, Kanjar also believe in a host of gods and goddesses (Sanga
devta – god of voice and Prithvi mata – earth goddess) and have much faith in ancestral
spirits. When somebody falls ill, it is an indication of displeasure of an ancestor and to
satisfy the spirits, they do their best to propitiate it. It is customary amongst them to bury
delicious edibles like soup, pork, wine, etc., on road crossing.
They worship fire and water as gods. People suspected of crimes are put to the test of fire
and water ordeals and those come out of these unscathed are considered innocent. The
Peepal tree is worshipped as God (if a Kanjar is wrong or false, he will never dare to
assert his truthfulness before this sacred tree). They believe in omens, when they start out
on professional work. Now Kanjars worship Ram, Krishna and Shiva (Hindu gods) and
Durga and Lakshmi (Hindu goddesses).
Economy
It is an occupational group, who are engaged in stone cutting, road dancing, plays and
sometimes, magic shows.
Political Organization
Their panchayat comprised of 5 to 7 members hear all disputes. Whenever there are
disputed claims or any breach of any social etiquette, the party or parties concerned call
the tribal panchayat. Cases of intra-tribal immorality are strictly controlled by it. Cases of
extra- immorality are mostly overlooked, as they are essential for fresh recruitment and
for getting useful information for the tribal.
Education
1.6% Kanjars are literate, while their locality is packed with primary, junior and inter
colleges. Their low literacy is due to their poverty.
Kanjars economy is influenced by urban areas, which are making them aware about
modernity, but due to the nomadic life, they are unable to take government facilities
(loans for trade, house, etc.). In Jaipur, rehabilitation program is going on for their
betterment.
Garsiya tribe
Garasiya
(Western Region)
This tribal group is living in Sirohi, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur and Banswara districts of
Rajasthan with a population of 67,440 (1991 census) and sex ratio of 1:1.
They are a mixture of Rajput (original caste group of Rajasthan) and Bhil (a tribal group
of Rajasthan).
They belong to the proto-australoid racial stock (narrow nose, medium stature, black head
hair and skin hair).
They speak Mewari – a group language of Rajasthan (austric group language).
It is a patriarchal society with many gotra-based groups.
Birth Ceremony
Unlike Hindus, Garasiya celebrate Chhathi ritual (when the mother comes out from the
delivery room the first time) and Barhi ritual (a function on the twelfth day when the
child takes edible items like honey). Pregnant women follow some taboos (prohibitions)
up to one month after the birth of the child (she cannot touch any religious or kitchen
items neither can she enter these places). In the Barhi ritual, a dinner is given to the
community.
Marriage Ceremony
They are gotra exogamous. Dapa (bride wealth) is the prime factor in deciding a
marriage. Consent, elopement and levirate marriages are in practice. After the marriage,
the bride remains with her parents, who pay a return-visit to the bridegroom in the same
way as groom’s marriage party visited them. Adamala (bride’s parents) come to the
groom’s home with Ghumana (a group of youth with dancing and singing). Adamala live
at the groom’s place for two or three days. Polygamy is rare but in practice. Divorce and
remarriage are allowed.
Death Ceremony
Unlike Hindus, they bury both married and unmarried men and women. Phula ritual is
concerned with the collection of remains after the cremation on the third day. They give a
feast in the honor of the soul and to the community.
Religion
They are Hindus. A few of them have embraced Christianity. The worship of spirits is
prevalent. Shiva, Ramrishabhdeo and Bhairon are their gods, and Durga and Kali are
their goddess.
Economy
They are agriculturist. Hunting and manual labor are their other sources of income.
Political Organization
Garasiya have a traditional panchayat of panchayat of five members, who listen to all
their disputes. Nobody can deny the decision of the panchayat. It is the central body for
the regulation of their routine life.
Education
0.5% are graduate and 3% are intermediate and 11% are junior high school educated.
Two junior high schools and one intermediate college are in their locality.
Garasiya are adopting urban life. They are traditional but familiar with modernity. Spread
of the Panchayati system is making them aware about government facilities. 7 NGOs are
working for their betterment and development.
Shahariya, Rawat, Mirats, Meena and Damrias have the same socio-cultural life as the
Garasiya have.
(Western Region)
This tribal group is living in Sirohi, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur and Banswara districts of
Rajasthan with a population of 67,440 (1991 census) and sex ratio of 1:1.
They are a mixture of Rajput (original caste group of Rajasthan) and Bhil (a tribal group
of Rajasthan).
They belong to the proto-australoid racial stock (narrow nose, medium stature, black head
hair and skin hair).
They speak Mewari – a group language of Rajasthan (austric group language).
It is a patriarchal society with many gotra-based groups.
Birth Ceremony
Unlike Hindus, Garasiya celebrate Chhathi ritual (when the mother comes out from the
delivery room the first time) and Barhi ritual (a function on the twelfth day when the
child takes edible items like honey). Pregnant women follow some taboos (prohibitions)
up to one month after the birth of the child (she cannot touch any religious or kitchen
items neither can she enter these places). In the Barhi ritual, a dinner is given to the
community.
Marriage Ceremony
They are gotra exogamous. Dapa (bride wealth) is the prime factor in deciding a
marriage. Consent, elopement and levirate marriages are in practice. After the marriage,
the bride remains with her parents, who pay a return-visit to the bridegroom in the same
way as groom’s marriage party visited them. Adamala (bride’s parents) come to the
groom’s home with Ghumana (a group of youth with dancing and singing). Adamala live
at the groom’s place for two or three days. Polygamy is rare but in practice. Divorce and
remarriage are allowed.
Death Ceremony
Unlike Hindus, they bury both married and unmarried men and women. Phula ritual is
concerned with the collection of remains after the cremation on the third day. They give a
feast in the honor of the soul and to the community.
Religion
They are Hindus. A few of them have embraced Christianity. The worship of spirits is
prevalent. Shiva, Ramrishabhdeo and Bhairon are their gods, and Durga and Kali are
their goddess.
Economy
They are agriculturist. Hunting and manual labor are their other sources of income.
Political Organization
Garasiya have a traditional panchayat of panchayat of five members, who listen to all
their disputes. Nobody can deny the decision of the panchayat. It is the central body for
the regulation of their routine life.
Education
0.5% are graduate and 3% are intermediate and 11% are junior high school educated.
Two junior high schools and one intermediate college are in their locality.
Garasiya are adopting urban life. They are traditional but familiar with modernity. Spread
of the Panchayati system is making them aware about government facilities. 7 NGOs are
working for their betterment and development.
Shahariya, Rawat, Mirats, Meena and Damrias have the same socio-cultural life as the
Garasiya have.
Dublas tribe
Dublas
(Western Region)
This tribal group is living the Surat district of Gujarat with a population of 2,18,988
(1991 census) and a sex ratio of 1:0.96.
Their physical features are proto-australoid racial stock (medium stature, black hair,
brownish skin color and narrow nose).
They speak Gujarati language (austric language group).
It is a patrilocal society and property is inherited from father to son.
Birth Ceremony
Dublas celebrate birth as a boon of Megni mata (goddess of family). On the day of birth,
the family gives dinner (Potlas, Dal of Moong, Muth and Kathals) to the community.
Pregnant women follow some taboo (prohibition) during delivery due the their belief in
impurity. Barha ritual is celebrated on the twelfth day after the birth, when the baby for
the first time is brought out of the room.
Marriage Ceremony
It is a gotra exogamous group. The marriage ceremony starts with the magni ceremony
(proposal for marriage), which is followed by betrothal or engagement ceremony. The
groom gives a sari, blouse and silver ornaments to the bride for using them during the
marriage. Purchase and consent marriages are frequent. The marriage takes place two to
three weeks after betrothal and the bride and groom have to apply Pithi (turmeric paste on
their whole body for three days). On the third day, the jan (procession) goes to the bride’s
house. Here the marriage ceremony is performed by themselves and not by the Brahmins.
A dinner is also arranged but the bridegroom’s side has to bring cooked food from their
house. After living at the bridegroom’s house for three days, the bride comes back to her
parent’s home. Vidai (final departure of the bride) is performed after a month. Men and
women of both sides consume liquor during every occasion. Bride wealth has the prime
value in the settlement of marriage.
Levirate and widow marriages are also in occurrence.
Death Ceremony
The death ceremony is spread over three days. On the first day, Dah (cremation) ritual is
conducted. On the second day, Leh ritual (collection of remains of the dead body from
the cremation place) and on the last day, vidai (farewell to the soul) ritual is celebrated.
They offer cooked food and liquor to the soul and give a dinner to the community.
Religion
They have faith in ancestral spirits. Malevolent and benevolent both types of spirits are
worshipped. Acculturation is visible in their religious beliefs. They worship Ram,
Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha (Hindu gods) and Durga, Lakshmi and Parvati (Hindi
goddesses). Black magic is also in practice. Christianity is spreading (3%) among them
Economy
They are basically, agriculturists. Carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, schoolteachers, peons
and Halis are the other occupations of their economic life.
Political Organization
Panch (traditional panchayat) comprised of 5 members exists in every Talukas (Mandi,
Bardoli, Valod, Bansda, Chikhil, Pardi, Bulsar and Dharranpur). It hears every dispute
especially marriage and land disputes especially the ones pertaining to marriage and land.
This panchayat has been replaced by the Panchayati raj system introduced by the state
government, (both co-exist) the people still have faith in the traditional panchayat.
Education
Every Taluka has a district board based schools, aided schools and many secondary
schools. 13% are educated at junior level, while 4.2% are intermediate. The education
level is better among the males compared to the females.
Some development programmes have been introduced by some NGO’s – Swaraj Ashram,
Dakshin Gujarat Ranipradesh Kelvani Mandal, Halpati Majur Mahajan and Catholic
Baptist Mission.
Due to acculturation and the effort of NGO’s and government, they are acquiring
modernity. They are familiar with television, telephone, motorcycle, etc.
Chodras, Dhodias, Konknis, Vasara, Varli, Kolchas, Dhor, Gumit, Kathodi and all other
tribal groups of Gujarat who have the same socio-cultural life as Dublas have.
(Western Region)
This tribal group is living the Surat district of Gujarat with a population of 2,18,988
(1991 census) and a sex ratio of 1:0.96.
Their physical features are proto-australoid racial stock (medium stature, black hair,
brownish skin color and narrow nose).
They speak Gujarati language (austric language group).
It is a patrilocal society and property is inherited from father to son.
Birth Ceremony
Dublas celebrate birth as a boon of Megni mata (goddess of family). On the day of birth,
the family gives dinner (Potlas, Dal of Moong, Muth and Kathals) to the community.
Pregnant women follow some taboo (prohibition) during delivery due the their belief in
impurity. Barha ritual is celebrated on the twelfth day after the birth, when the baby for
the first time is brought out of the room.
Marriage Ceremony
It is a gotra exogamous group. The marriage ceremony starts with the magni ceremony
(proposal for marriage), which is followed by betrothal or engagement ceremony. The
groom gives a sari, blouse and silver ornaments to the bride for using them during the
marriage. Purchase and consent marriages are frequent. The marriage takes place two to
three weeks after betrothal and the bride and groom have to apply Pithi (turmeric paste on
their whole body for three days). On the third day, the jan (procession) goes to the bride’s
house. Here the marriage ceremony is performed by themselves and not by the Brahmins.
A dinner is also arranged but the bridegroom’s side has to bring cooked food from their
house. After living at the bridegroom’s house for three days, the bride comes back to her
parent’s home. Vidai (final departure of the bride) is performed after a month. Men and
women of both sides consume liquor during every occasion. Bride wealth has the prime
value in the settlement of marriage.
Levirate and widow marriages are also in occurrence.
Death Ceremony
The death ceremony is spread over three days. On the first day, Dah (cremation) ritual is
conducted. On the second day, Leh ritual (collection of remains of the dead body from
the cremation place) and on the last day, vidai (farewell to the soul) ritual is celebrated.
They offer cooked food and liquor to the soul and give a dinner to the community.
Religion
They have faith in ancestral spirits. Malevolent and benevolent both types of spirits are
worshipped. Acculturation is visible in their religious beliefs. They worship Ram,
Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha (Hindu gods) and Durga, Lakshmi and Parvati (Hindi
goddesses). Black magic is also in practice. Christianity is spreading (3%) among them
Economy
They are basically, agriculturists. Carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, schoolteachers, peons
and Halis are the other occupations of their economic life.
Political Organization
Panch (traditional panchayat) comprised of 5 members exists in every Talukas (Mandi,
Bardoli, Valod, Bansda, Chikhil, Pardi, Bulsar and Dharranpur). It hears every dispute
especially marriage and land disputes especially the ones pertaining to marriage and land.
This panchayat has been replaced by the Panchayati raj system introduced by the state
government, (both co-exist) the people still have faith in the traditional panchayat.
Education
Every Taluka has a district board based schools, aided schools and many secondary
schools. 13% are educated at junior level, while 4.2% are intermediate. The education
level is better among the males compared to the females.
Some development programmes have been introduced by some NGO’s – Swaraj Ashram,
Dakshin Gujarat Ranipradesh Kelvani Mandal, Halpati Majur Mahajan and Catholic
Baptist Mission.
Due to acculturation and the effort of NGO’s and government, they are acquiring
modernity. They are familiar with television, telephone, motorcycle, etc.
Chodras, Dhodias, Konknis, Vasara, Varli, Kolchas, Dhor, Gumit, Kathodi and all other
tribal groups of Gujarat who have the same socio-cultural life as Dublas have.
Damor tribe
Damor
It is a tribal group of the western region of India, living in the Dungarpur district of
Rajasthan State having a population of 30,154 (1991 census) and sex ratio of 1:1.
It is a patriarchal society. No Damor will accept any kind of cooked food or water from a
Bhil (another tribe), and the Bhil also accept this social inferiority.
Under the racial classification, they are of pro-australiod category.
They speak Mewari language (austric language group).
Birth Ceremony
At the time of pregnancy, the expectant mother is taken to her parent’s home. If a woman
gives birth in her in-law’s home then the Suawad ritual (parents of the woman visit her
with rice and coconut) is celebrated. They only give goat milk to the child at the time of
the birth. After ten days, the mother takes a sacred bath and worships the Sun (their
traditional god). Up to a period of 40 days after the birth, the mother is not permitted to
enter the kitchen, nor can she touch the water pots.
She keeps some rice in a piece of white cloth in the case of a female child, and red cloth
in the case of a male child, and places this on the banks of the village tank and worships
the Jal Devta (water god). After finishing this ceremony, the mother can start fetching
water from the well for general use.
One day prior to the first Holi (the Hindu festival of colors) after the birth, Dhundh ritual
is celebrated. The woman’s parents send some presents (like silver bangles), but they
can’t visit her. Her other relatives visit her and they are served with Kansar (sweet
dishes).
The priest, who announces the date for the serving of the first wholesome meal to the
child, performs the naming ceremony. According to custom a relative, who offers a cow
or some silver ornaments, feeds the baby.
In the case of a childless family, a husband may either remarry or adopt his brother or
sister’s son only.
Marriage
They are gotra exogamous. Premarital relations are not allowed. There is no preference
for cross cousin or parallel cousin marriage. A male or female Damor can not marry
outside their tribe. Bride wealth is the locus of the marriage. If a widow has a son, she is
not expected to remarry. A Damor man irrespective of his category of orientation can
marry a Bhagat (a sub-caste) or non-Bhagat Damor girl, which a Damor woman can’t.
Vermilion is the sign of marriage. Usually after marriage, the newly weds live in a newly
constructed house, separately from their parents. A widow cannot choose her husband
from the clan of her deceased husband, nor can she marry any person of her in-law’s
village. Levirate marriage is completely forbidden. In this community, a wife is not
supposed to leave her husband nor can she establish extra-martial relations. If a woman
runs away from her husband’s house, it is the tradition of the community that no other
male would give her shelter or establish martial relation with her.
Death Ceremony
When the attendants of the dying person see that, he/she is about to pass away, they
plaster the floor of the house with cow-dung and place the person on it. If the deceased is
a married woman, her husband does not accompany the funeral to the crematorium;
instead his son takes his place. Paliya ritual (the people carrying the dead person,
interchange their places) is performed en route and at these places some stones and
pebbles are thrown.
If deceased the deceased is a pregnant woman, then her uterus is cut open and the baby is
taken out and kept on side of the dead mother.
In the Katariya (a ritual on the tenth day after the death), all male members of the family
and lineage shave their heads. On the eleventh and the eighteenth of the death, a village
and a caste dinner is arranged.
The Mahiya ritual starts from the second day after the death, in which an earthen pot is
kept at a particular place and everyday half a kilogram of grain is put into it. On the
twenty-seventh day, the pot is presented to a Brahmin priest. Durva-Shtami ritual is
celebrated on the eighth day of “Bhadra pada” (Hindu calendar) in which, dinner is
served to the members of the lineage. Shardha ceremony (ritual to appease the
forefathers) is observed after three years and the sons and the grandsons carry it out every
year.
Any person who dies of smallpox is always buried and never cremated. This is based on
the strong religious belief that on burning of such a body, goddess Mataji (who is
responsible for this disease) will get angry and cause more deaths.
Religion
Damor worship Rama, Krishna, Ganga and Ranchorji of Eakor (all Hindu gods and
goddesses). They also present their reverence to certain plants and animals such as Tulsi
and Peepal (plants) and the cow and serpent (animals). They are devotees of Kalkamata
and Ramdevji. Sarpdevta (serpent god) is worshipped among them. Goat and cock is
sacrificed in the honor of every god and goddesses. Khatrimata is worshipped and an
animal is sacrificed to her at the time of any epidemic among the cattle. This deity is also
propitiated for snakebite cure.
Economy
Damors are basically agriculturist but they are also engaged as laborers. Property is
inherited from father to son. Bamboo based handicraft is also a good source of economy.
Due to the introduction of the Panchayati raj, they have acquired a new stream of life,
which is generating awareness and development in their villages.
Education
Damor’s approach toward education is not good. Only 2.7% are literate and four primary
schools and two senior secondary schools are there in the Dungarpur district. But their
inclination is increasing, due to their contact with the modern life. They are taking
modern benefits by availing good education.
The approach towards modern life is creating an awareness of progress among them.
It is a tribal group of the western region of India, living in the Dungarpur district of
Rajasthan State having a population of 30,154 (1991 census) and sex ratio of 1:1.
It is a patriarchal society. No Damor will accept any kind of cooked food or water from a
Bhil (another tribe), and the Bhil also accept this social inferiority.
Under the racial classification, they are of pro-australiod category.
They speak Mewari language (austric language group).
Birth Ceremony
At the time of pregnancy, the expectant mother is taken to her parent’s home. If a woman
gives birth in her in-law’s home then the Suawad ritual (parents of the woman visit her
with rice and coconut) is celebrated. They only give goat milk to the child at the time of
the birth. After ten days, the mother takes a sacred bath and worships the Sun (their
traditional god). Up to a period of 40 days after the birth, the mother is not permitted to
enter the kitchen, nor can she touch the water pots.
She keeps some rice in a piece of white cloth in the case of a female child, and red cloth
in the case of a male child, and places this on the banks of the village tank and worships
the Jal Devta (water god). After finishing this ceremony, the mother can start fetching
water from the well for general use.
One day prior to the first Holi (the Hindu festival of colors) after the birth, Dhundh ritual
is celebrated. The woman’s parents send some presents (like silver bangles), but they
can’t visit her. Her other relatives visit her and they are served with Kansar (sweet
dishes).
The priest, who announces the date for the serving of the first wholesome meal to the
child, performs the naming ceremony. According to custom a relative, who offers a cow
or some silver ornaments, feeds the baby.
In the case of a childless family, a husband may either remarry or adopt his brother or
sister’s son only.
Marriage
They are gotra exogamous. Premarital relations are not allowed. There is no preference
for cross cousin or parallel cousin marriage. A male or female Damor can not marry
outside their tribe. Bride wealth is the locus of the marriage. If a widow has a son, she is
not expected to remarry. A Damor man irrespective of his category of orientation can
marry a Bhagat (a sub-caste) or non-Bhagat Damor girl, which a Damor woman can’t.
Vermilion is the sign of marriage. Usually after marriage, the newly weds live in a newly
constructed house, separately from their parents. A widow cannot choose her husband
from the clan of her deceased husband, nor can she marry any person of her in-law’s
village. Levirate marriage is completely forbidden. In this community, a wife is not
supposed to leave her husband nor can she establish extra-martial relations. If a woman
runs away from her husband’s house, it is the tradition of the community that no other
male would give her shelter or establish martial relation with her.
Death Ceremony
When the attendants of the dying person see that, he/she is about to pass away, they
plaster the floor of the house with cow-dung and place the person on it. If the deceased is
a married woman, her husband does not accompany the funeral to the crematorium;
instead his son takes his place. Paliya ritual (the people carrying the dead person,
interchange their places) is performed en route and at these places some stones and
pebbles are thrown.
If deceased the deceased is a pregnant woman, then her uterus is cut open and the baby is
taken out and kept on side of the dead mother.
In the Katariya (a ritual on the tenth day after the death), all male members of the family
and lineage shave their heads. On the eleventh and the eighteenth of the death, a village
and a caste dinner is arranged.
The Mahiya ritual starts from the second day after the death, in which an earthen pot is
kept at a particular place and everyday half a kilogram of grain is put into it. On the
twenty-seventh day, the pot is presented to a Brahmin priest. Durva-Shtami ritual is
celebrated on the eighth day of “Bhadra pada” (Hindu calendar) in which, dinner is
served to the members of the lineage. Shardha ceremony (ritual to appease the
forefathers) is observed after three years and the sons and the grandsons carry it out every
year.
Any person who dies of smallpox is always buried and never cremated. This is based on
the strong religious belief that on burning of such a body, goddess Mataji (who is
responsible for this disease) will get angry and cause more deaths.
Religion
Damor worship Rama, Krishna, Ganga and Ranchorji of Eakor (all Hindu gods and
goddesses). They also present their reverence to certain plants and animals such as Tulsi
and Peepal (plants) and the cow and serpent (animals). They are devotees of Kalkamata
and Ramdevji. Sarpdevta (serpent god) is worshipped among them. Goat and cock is
sacrificed in the honor of every god and goddesses. Khatrimata is worshipped and an
animal is sacrificed to her at the time of any epidemic among the cattle. This deity is also
propitiated for snakebite cure.
Economy
Damors are basically agriculturist but they are also engaged as laborers. Property is
inherited from father to son. Bamboo based handicraft is also a good source of economy.
Due to the introduction of the Panchayati raj, they have acquired a new stream of life,
which is generating awareness and development in their villages.
Education
Damor’s approach toward education is not good. Only 2.7% are literate and four primary
schools and two senior secondary schools are there in the Dungarpur district. But their
inclination is increasing, due to their contact with the modern life. They are taking
modern benefits by availing good education.
The approach towards modern life is creating an awareness of progress among them.
Toda tribe
Toda
(Southern Region)
This tribal group is living in Utakmand and Kunnur districts of Tamil Nadu State and
Kenara district of Karnataka State with a small population of 1,716 (1991 census). Their
sex ratio is 1:0.76.
This tribe is famous for its polyandry tradition and buffalo husbandry culture. Their
cultural life is bound to the Nilgiri mountains.
Their physical features are similar to proto-australoid or ainu of Japan (yellowish skin
color, high stature, narrow nose, brown eye, long beard and dense skin hair).
Toda speak the Todi language without any script (Dravidian language group).
It is also believed that those who worship the Tudra (a tree found in the Nilgiri
mountains) are known as Toda.
Toda is divided into two moiety (a moiety include many gotra) – Tarthasol (12 gotra) and
Taivailiol (six gotra).
They live in Aaras (a special low height house) consisting of six to seven huts.
Birth Ceremony
Only the male birth is celebrated. Female infanticide is very common among them. Due
to influence of the polyandry marriage system Purusatpimi ritual (bow and arrow
ceremony) is conducted in the seventh month of the pregnancy to decide the social father
to the expectant baby. One of the husbands goes to the forests and gives a bow and arrow
to his pregnant wife. He remains the father to all children of that woman until another
husband carries out the Purusatpimi ritual. At the time of the birth, Milai ritual is
performed for the child and the father, in which is given a dinner to the community.
Kelchi (an old woman of the clan) is responsible for female infanticide.
Marriage Ceremony
They are Kudupeli (lineage) and Madol (gotra) exogamous. Fraternal polyandry (more
than one brother marries the same woman) is very common. Non-fraternal marriage is
also in existence (due to the inability to pay bride wealth, many clan men share bride
wealth for a common marriage). In any case, the woman is considered as the wife of the
eldest brother. If the younger brother engages in another marriage, even then the marriage
is solemnized with the eldest brother. Due to such kind of marriage, they consider
themselves to be the associated with Pandava (A historical group who fought against
Kaurava in the battle of Mahabharata at Kurushetra. Krishna – a Hindu god was the
witness to this war) and consider their marriage as Panadava marriage (Pandava were a
family of five brothers who married one woman, Draupadi). Bride wealth is the locus of
the marriage. Divorce is in practice but to a very small extent due to the high bride
wealth. Child marriage is in practice. They believe that pre-marital relations are good for
prosperous life, The marriage ceremony starts with the mang ritual (proposal for bride
and the settlement of bride wealth) and ends with Ghumana ritual (departure of bride to
the bridegroom’s house). Bangles are the sign of the marriage.
Pukuli (a piece of cloth) and a piece of wood outside the married woman’s room is the
indication of her sexual engagement with one of her husbands.
Death Ceremony
They do the cremation twice. The first is Hase Kedu (to burn the dead body). In the case
of the death of an unmarried female, an unmarried male is chosen, who puts some grass
on her hand and some rice and jaggery on her clothes. The cross-cousin sister in the case
of the death of an unmarried male performs same ritual. They are now considered as
widow or widower according to the situation. In every death ritual they sacrifice buffalo.
The second ritual is Barakedu, in which the remains of the dead person including the
head and hair are burnt. It is sign of the assimilation of the soul of the dead person with
the Amnador god (god of soul). They have faith in rebirth. In this ritual, buffalo is
sacrificed and its meat is served as dinner.
Economy
The whole economy of Toda comes from Tee (buffalo) husbandry. Women can’t touch
the buffalo, can’t walk on the path which is used for buffalo movement. Palo (priest) and
Kaltmorh (assistant of the priest) look after the buffaloes. Palol changes after very 18
years (he is always from Taivailiol moiety). The earn money from the milk and buffalo
husbandry but they never use the milk. Their economy is based on Badaga, Kota, Irula
and Kurumba (tribes of Nilgiri mountains), who take buffalo milk products and give
different items in exchange.
Religion
Toda are Hindus but Tiukarji is their main goddess. Oan and Pinarkursh are the other
gods and goddess. Since their life revolves around the buffalo, they worship Tee (buffalo)
as god. They also worship Ram, Vishnu, Durga and Paravati (Hindu gods and
goddesses).
Education
Education has put the concept of health among them which ahs maintained their
population (earlier, their population was decreasing due to the absence of education and
influence of primitive beliefs). 9.7% are taking primary and junior level education. Two
junior, one high school and one inter college is in their localities.
Government is giving them land for agriculture under Todapatta Bhumi Niti (Toda land
lease policy) but they are not utilizing these benefits due to their cultural beliefs.
Government has also introduced a buffalo husbandry policy for their economical growth,
which is showing good results.
Toda are familiar with modern life but they don’t want to leave their cultural roots.
Kota, Badaga, Irula and Kurumba have the same socio-cultural life as the Toda.
(Southern Region)
This tribal group is living in Utakmand and Kunnur districts of Tamil Nadu State and
Kenara district of Karnataka State with a small population of 1,716 (1991 census). Their
sex ratio is 1:0.76.
This tribe is famous for its polyandry tradition and buffalo husbandry culture. Their
cultural life is bound to the Nilgiri mountains.
Their physical features are similar to proto-australoid or ainu of Japan (yellowish skin
color, high stature, narrow nose, brown eye, long beard and dense skin hair).
Toda speak the Todi language without any script (Dravidian language group).
It is also believed that those who worship the Tudra (a tree found in the Nilgiri
mountains) are known as Toda.
Toda is divided into two moiety (a moiety include many gotra) – Tarthasol (12 gotra) and
Taivailiol (six gotra).
They live in Aaras (a special low height house) consisting of six to seven huts.
Birth Ceremony
Only the male birth is celebrated. Female infanticide is very common among them. Due
to influence of the polyandry marriage system Purusatpimi ritual (bow and arrow
ceremony) is conducted in the seventh month of the pregnancy to decide the social father
to the expectant baby. One of the husbands goes to the forests and gives a bow and arrow
to his pregnant wife. He remains the father to all children of that woman until another
husband carries out the Purusatpimi ritual. At the time of the birth, Milai ritual is
performed for the child and the father, in which is given a dinner to the community.
Kelchi (an old woman of the clan) is responsible for female infanticide.
Marriage Ceremony
They are Kudupeli (lineage) and Madol (gotra) exogamous. Fraternal polyandry (more
than one brother marries the same woman) is very common. Non-fraternal marriage is
also in existence (due to the inability to pay bride wealth, many clan men share bride
wealth for a common marriage). In any case, the woman is considered as the wife of the
eldest brother. If the younger brother engages in another marriage, even then the marriage
is solemnized with the eldest brother. Due to such kind of marriage, they consider
themselves to be the associated with Pandava (A historical group who fought against
Kaurava in the battle of Mahabharata at Kurushetra. Krishna – a Hindu god was the
witness to this war) and consider their marriage as Panadava marriage (Pandava were a
family of five brothers who married one woman, Draupadi). Bride wealth is the locus of
the marriage. Divorce is in practice but to a very small extent due to the high bride
wealth. Child marriage is in practice. They believe that pre-marital relations are good for
prosperous life, The marriage ceremony starts with the mang ritual (proposal for bride
and the settlement of bride wealth) and ends with Ghumana ritual (departure of bride to
the bridegroom’s house). Bangles are the sign of the marriage.
Pukuli (a piece of cloth) and a piece of wood outside the married woman’s room is the
indication of her sexual engagement with one of her husbands.
Death Ceremony
They do the cremation twice. The first is Hase Kedu (to burn the dead body). In the case
of the death of an unmarried female, an unmarried male is chosen, who puts some grass
on her hand and some rice and jaggery on her clothes. The cross-cousin sister in the case
of the death of an unmarried male performs same ritual. They are now considered as
widow or widower according to the situation. In every death ritual they sacrifice buffalo.
The second ritual is Barakedu, in which the remains of the dead person including the
head and hair are burnt. It is sign of the assimilation of the soul of the dead person with
the Amnador god (god of soul). They have faith in rebirth. In this ritual, buffalo is
sacrificed and its meat is served as dinner.
Economy
The whole economy of Toda comes from Tee (buffalo) husbandry. Women can’t touch
the buffalo, can’t walk on the path which is used for buffalo movement. Palo (priest) and
Kaltmorh (assistant of the priest) look after the buffaloes. Palol changes after very 18
years (he is always from Taivailiol moiety). The earn money from the milk and buffalo
husbandry but they never use the milk. Their economy is based on Badaga, Kota, Irula
and Kurumba (tribes of Nilgiri mountains), who take buffalo milk products and give
different items in exchange.
Religion
Toda are Hindus but Tiukarji is their main goddess. Oan and Pinarkursh are the other
gods and goddess. Since their life revolves around the buffalo, they worship Tee (buffalo)
as god. They also worship Ram, Vishnu, Durga and Paravati (Hindu gods and
goddesses).
Education
Education has put the concept of health among them which ahs maintained their
population (earlier, their population was decreasing due to the absence of education and
influence of primitive beliefs). 9.7% are taking primary and junior level education. Two
junior, one high school and one inter college is in their localities.
Government is giving them land for agriculture under Todapatta Bhumi Niti (Toda land
lease policy) but they are not utilizing these benefits due to their cultural beliefs.
Government has also introduced a buffalo husbandry policy for their economical growth,
which is showing good results.
Toda are familiar with modern life but they don’t want to leave their cultural roots.
Kota, Badaga, Irula and Kurumba have the same socio-cultural life as the Toda.
Tharu tribe
Tharu
It is a Mongolian group, who are living in the Tarai belt of the Himalayan region in the
districts of Nainital, Dehradun (Uttaranchal state), Lakhimpur, Gonda, Bahraich,
Gorakhpur, Basti and Pilibhit (Uttar Pradesh state). Their population is 1,32,021
comprising of 67,026 males and 64,995 females (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1:1.
Their name Tharu is wrapped with many stories, most popular is that of migration from
Rajasthan, due to the invasion of the Mughals. It is also believed that this name came in
existence from the name "Thar" desert of Rajasthan.
Tharu family is an example of the joint family. The oldest person of the family takes
every decision. Labor division in the family is defined, which varies according to the
change of the seasons.
Birth Ceremony
Tikara ritual is concerned with the occurrence of pregnancy and on the birth of a child,
they worship their local god (Bamboo Shiva) and give a bhoj (dinner).
Marriage ceremony
They are divided into 73 subdivisions and at the clan level they are exogamous. They
perform their marriage in Phagun (month of March) or at the time of Holi (the festival of
colors). They select the groom and bride at the Charai fair. Exchange marriage was
frequent among them but Teen tik thi (which is its exact opposite of exchange marriage)
is in practice. A person can choose a girl of distant relative of his brother-in-law they are
monogamy. Pakki oddhi - signifies the settlement of marriage. Lath makha bhoj (a kind
of dinner) is given after the completion of marriage. They use vermilion as the sign of
marriage. They give full honor and protection to their daughter-in-laws instead of their
wedded daughters.
Avoidance (a custom in which the daughter-in-law maintains a distance from her brotherin-
law and her father-in-law) exists among them. The status of woman is very
prestigious. No Tharu man can enter the kitchen or sit equivalent to Tharu woman, and
women don't eat those fish, which have been collected by Tharu males. But all domestic
power and property are under the supervision of the males. Bride wealth is very high
among them. Liquor (wine made from the Mahua tree) is used in every ritual.
Death ceremony
Nothing is different from the Hindu customs but they do not perform Terahvi (a ritual on
the thirteenth day after the occurrence of the death). The final ritual is Dasar (the tenth
day ritual). Every clan male shaves his head and takes part in a given bhoj (dinner).
After the cremation, the Tharu come back to the village and on the way, they halt in the
square (Chauraha) and make a symbolic bridge of mud there. It signifies that the soul will
attain the spiritual world and position with the help of this bridge.
Economy
They are basically agriculturist. The main production is rice, gram and wheat. They are
engaged in hunting and fishing also. Hunted animals are chittal (type of deer), pig, etc,
and catch fish with chhaparia (a basket made of sticks of bamboo).
Education
In Nainital and Baharaich 3 ashrams (boarding) schools are running very well in the
Tharu areas. 11.2% Tharus are literate but they don’t prefer to get engaged in government
jobs.
Religion
They are devotees of Lord Shiva and Jagannath (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu – a Hindu
deity). But they make the symbol of Lord Shiva with bamboo instead of stone, which is
commonly done by the majority of the Hindu communities. They worship Ram, Krishna.
They have 36 gods and goddesses and offer all of them except Jagannath sacrifice.
Jagannath is worshipped with milk. Goats and pigs are the animals that are sacrificed.
Political organization
Panchayat consists of 5 to 7 members, when the panchayat hears any dispute. It starts
with “Madhayapa panchagara mandira (a kind of alcohol, which is consumed by all the
five or seven members of the panchayat). If any member of the community does not obey
the decision of panchayat, he suffers from social pains including disbarment from the
community.
Festivals
Bajhar is celebrated in the rainy season. On this day all woman of the village go to the
forest along with food items and select a specific place where a Peepal (Banyan) tree
exists. They cook food and stay there the whole night. Males are not allowed and they
remain in their homes. This festival is concerned with the welfare eof the community.
Charai ka Mela (fair) is conducted in the month of March and is mainly concerned with
the selection of male and female for marriage purpose.
It the last three decades, the Tharu have approached the modern life. They are adapting to
new agricultural implements and fertilizers. They are now approaching the schools in
their region for the betterment of their children. Now due to the implementation of the
Panchayati Raj, they do not take loans from private agencies. They have started to speak
good Hindi. In the 8th five-year plan, they are have taken seeds from government
agencies and they are going to the primary health agencies and they are going to primary
health centers after knowing the modern concept of health.
It is a Mongolian group, who are living in the Tarai belt of the Himalayan region in the
districts of Nainital, Dehradun (Uttaranchal state), Lakhimpur, Gonda, Bahraich,
Gorakhpur, Basti and Pilibhit (Uttar Pradesh state). Their population is 1,32,021
comprising of 67,026 males and 64,995 females (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1:1.
Their name Tharu is wrapped with many stories, most popular is that of migration from
Rajasthan, due to the invasion of the Mughals. It is also believed that this name came in
existence from the name "Thar" desert of Rajasthan.
Tharu family is an example of the joint family. The oldest person of the family takes
every decision. Labor division in the family is defined, which varies according to the
change of the seasons.
Birth Ceremony
Tikara ritual is concerned with the occurrence of pregnancy and on the birth of a child,
they worship their local god (Bamboo Shiva) and give a bhoj (dinner).
Marriage ceremony
They are divided into 73 subdivisions and at the clan level they are exogamous. They
perform their marriage in Phagun (month of March) or at the time of Holi (the festival of
colors). They select the groom and bride at the Charai fair. Exchange marriage was
frequent among them but Teen tik thi (which is its exact opposite of exchange marriage)
is in practice. A person can choose a girl of distant relative of his brother-in-law they are
monogamy. Pakki oddhi - signifies the settlement of marriage. Lath makha bhoj (a kind
of dinner) is given after the completion of marriage. They use vermilion as the sign of
marriage. They give full honor and protection to their daughter-in-laws instead of their
wedded daughters.
Avoidance (a custom in which the daughter-in-law maintains a distance from her brotherin-
law and her father-in-law) exists among them. The status of woman is very
prestigious. No Tharu man can enter the kitchen or sit equivalent to Tharu woman, and
women don't eat those fish, which have been collected by Tharu males. But all domestic
power and property are under the supervision of the males. Bride wealth is very high
among them. Liquor (wine made from the Mahua tree) is used in every ritual.
Death ceremony
Nothing is different from the Hindu customs but they do not perform Terahvi (a ritual on
the thirteenth day after the occurrence of the death). The final ritual is Dasar (the tenth
day ritual). Every clan male shaves his head and takes part in a given bhoj (dinner).
After the cremation, the Tharu come back to the village and on the way, they halt in the
square (Chauraha) and make a symbolic bridge of mud there. It signifies that the soul will
attain the spiritual world and position with the help of this bridge.
Economy
They are basically agriculturist. The main production is rice, gram and wheat. They are
engaged in hunting and fishing also. Hunted animals are chittal (type of deer), pig, etc,
and catch fish with chhaparia (a basket made of sticks of bamboo).
Education
In Nainital and Baharaich 3 ashrams (boarding) schools are running very well in the
Tharu areas. 11.2% Tharus are literate but they don’t prefer to get engaged in government
jobs.
Religion
They are devotees of Lord Shiva and Jagannath (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu – a Hindu
deity). But they make the symbol of Lord Shiva with bamboo instead of stone, which is
commonly done by the majority of the Hindu communities. They worship Ram, Krishna.
They have 36 gods and goddesses and offer all of them except Jagannath sacrifice.
Jagannath is worshipped with milk. Goats and pigs are the animals that are sacrificed.
Political organization
Panchayat consists of 5 to 7 members, when the panchayat hears any dispute. It starts
with “Madhayapa panchagara mandira (a kind of alcohol, which is consumed by all the
five or seven members of the panchayat). If any member of the community does not obey
the decision of panchayat, he suffers from social pains including disbarment from the
community.
Festivals
Bajhar is celebrated in the rainy season. On this day all woman of the village go to the
forest along with food items and select a specific place where a Peepal (Banyan) tree
exists. They cook food and stay there the whole night. Males are not allowed and they
remain in their homes. This festival is concerned with the welfare eof the community.
Charai ka Mela (fair) is conducted in the month of March and is mainly concerned with
the selection of male and female for marriage purpose.
It the last three decades, the Tharu have approached the modern life. They are adapting to
new agricultural implements and fertilizers. They are now approaching the schools in
their region for the betterment of their children. Now due to the implementation of the
Panchayati Raj, they do not take loans from private agencies. They have started to speak
good Hindi. In the 8th five-year plan, they are have taken seeds from government
agencies and they are going to the primary health agencies and they are going to primary
health centers after knowing the modern concept of health.
Santhal tribe
Santhal
Based in the northern region of India, the Santhal is an agriculturist tribe with a settled
life. It is one of the largest tribe of the India. Their population is 40 lakhs (1991 census)
with a sex ratio of 1:1. They are based in the states of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal.
Their living places are Santhal Pargana (main living place of this tribe), Bhagalpur,
Maghhar, Hajari bagh, Ranchi, Singhbhumi, Dhanbad and Palamu districts.
They are of proto australoid origin. Their skin colour varies from black to dark brown.
Their language is Santhali, which is originated from the Mundari language (Mundari
language is of austro-asian family).
They are mainly living in the villages. In every village size, 10 to 50 families live. Every
village is divided in many Tolas and a chief heads these Tolas separately.
Santhal tribe is divided in 12 gotras. These are- Hansda,Murmu,Kisku, Hembram, Mandi,
Sauren, Tutu, Baske, Beshra, Pauria, Chore, Baidia. Beshra and Baidia gotras are
considered inferior. They are patriarchal and exogamous group. Mainly they prefer
nuclear family but extended family also exists.
Chacho- chhathiyar
This ritual is performed before the marriage. This ritual is the sign of his/her caste or
status in the community. Age is not fixed for this ritual. If a man or woman dies without
performing this ritual, that person is not brunt and no ceremony is conducted for him.
Marriage
In general practice they are monogamous. If wife is not fertile, in that case they do more
than one marriage. Surrorate marriage is permitted but cross cousin marriage are strictly
prohibited and it is a social taboo. They adopt many tribal methods in the selection of the
mates. Widow marriage is also performed but in a very simple manner. In case of
separation both male and female have the equal right. The main cause of separation of the
marriage is due the effect of witchcraft, sorcery and adultery. Divorce is also in practice.
In the general practice, it is known as “Bapla”. Marriage in same gotra is prohibited.
They do their marriages after the Shivaratri. Monday, Wednesday and Friday are
auspicious for their marriages.
The process of marriage is started by the “Raivarich” (a mediator). Ghar dekhi ritual is
performed by seeing the homes of the bride and bridegroom by the members of the both
families. Another ritual is “Tilak-Chadi” wherein both sides give gifts to the bride and
bridegroom.
Taka chal is kind of bride wealth, which is given by the groom side to the father of bride,
generally amounting to twelve rupees.
On a certain date groom side come to the bride’s home and the bride’s side with water
and stick of mango tree welcomes them. This ritual is known as “Daram-Dak”. Gud (a
preparation made by cane juice) is also given to groom side at the every door of the
village. After that they stay under a tree andcook their food. The bride side does not give
dinner.
Sindara ghan - It is the last ritual, which is associated with the vermilion. The groom’s
family reaches the door of bride’s father. Both bride and bridegroom are taken on the
shoulders of the members of both sides. In the same situation, groom puts vermilion on
the middle of the bride’s head five times. This is the culmination of the marriage process.
The role of Pandit (a man who performs the process of the marriage) shows their
association with the Hindu culture. Pandit is known as “Jogh-manjhi”.
They also consume a lot of liquor, which is known as “Handia”
Death ceremony
Death ceremony is same as Hindu does but the ritual of Teil nahan is slightly different.
Other rituals are – cremation, collection of bones and its disposal in a river and lastly
Shradha (a kind of bhoj). The community women wrap the dead body with turmeric and
teil (oil).
Teil nahan - this ritual is performed at the fifth day of the death. Every male member of
that village shaves their heads and take bath. After that thay offer the edible items to the
forefathers and to the dead person as well.
The remains of the dead person is known as Jad-baha, which is dipped in the river
especially in the Nai (Damoder river).
Religion
Santhals are Hindus. They have faith in the Lord Shiva. In the light of religion they are in
three sect- Bonga hoda, Safa hoda and Um hoda
Bonga hoda are associated with Hinduism. They have full faith in god- goddess and
witchcraft tradition. They believe in the Bonga buru (goddess) and in
Hapdanako(forefathers), who protect them from every natural and social calamities. They
use mantra (verse) for the worship of them, which is known as Bakhera in their local
language.
The males perform all the sacred work. Their religious place is known as “Jahere than”
and “Manjhi than”. The entrance of female is prohibited here.
Their main gods and goddesses are- “Marad buru”, “Jarehar era”, “Mondeko-tuiko”,
“Gonsai era”, “Odank bonga” and “Hapdanako(fore fathers)”. The most important god is
Marad buru, who is actually god Shiva. He is all in all in their social lives.
Safa hoda are those Santhals, who are protecting their original religion from the process
of acculturation especially from Christianity and Islam. This sect came in light due the
serious effort of saint Bhagirath, who started a safa hoda movement.
Um hoda are those Santhals, who are converted in to the Christianity. They numbers are
very small, but their association from their original place and their cultural pattern of life
is still untouched.
Festivals
Santhal start to celebrate their festival from the month of July. The main festivals are
“Eroke”, “Hariyad”, “Janpad”, “Sohrai”, “Sakrat”, “Bhagsim” and “Baha”.
Eroke is concerned with the agriculture and is celebrated in the month of July. At this
time they sow the seeds and do also sacrifice.
Hariyad is associated with the proper yield of cereals. They worship their gods for the
proper growth of crop.
Janpad is performed for the good storage of crop. A pig is sacrificed at the place
Jherethan(a sacred place). A feast is also given to the community but only men are
permitted for this feast.
Sohrai is the main festival of them and it is celebrated at the time of harvesting especially
is associated with paddy. In this festival every god goddess and forefathers are
worshipped. All the elder persons of the community are also honored. This festival span
is of five days.
Sakrat is celebrated only two days. It is associated with the welfare of the family.
Maradburu and other forefathers are worshipped.
Bhagsim is celebrated in the month of February. a hen is sacrificed at the bank of the
pond. On the same day, the social statuses of the community men are determined.
Vaha, it is the second largest festival of the Santhals. The literal meaning of the vaha is –
flower. It is celebrated in the month of March. They do not use any leaves or flowers
before the celebration of this festival. The span of this festival is of three days. This
festival is equivalent to the festival Vasantpanchmi of Hindus.
Political organization
Panchayat is their traditional political organization. Every village has its own panchayat.
The five people - Manjhi, Paranik, Jogh manjhi, Jogh paranik and Godet form Panchayat.
In their language this five men panchayat is known as Monde hod (five men). These five
members are elected at time of Bhagsim (a festival in February). Now Manjhi is
authorised for some power. So before the election, the official permission from
government is must.
Manjhi is the chief of the village and he is also the chief of the panchayat. Manjhi is
responsible for the land revenue.
Paranik is the vice- chief of the village. He is also the pseudo successor of the Manjhi.
Jogh manjhi is the head of the youth and is responsible for their moral. Jogh-paranik is
the assistant of the Jogh manjhi. Godte is the messenger of the Manjhi.
Panchayat’s function is mainly associated with land dispute, marriage, separation, rape,
adultery, witchcraft tradition, domestic animal disputes and division of the house.
If any dispute does not reach at its final end, another panchayat is formed by the five
Manjhis. This is known as Monde manjhi. The chief of this panchayat is called Pargana.
The assistant of the pargana is known as Dusmanjhi and messenger is called chakladar.
Pargana supervises more than fifteen villages.
It is crystal clear fact that Santhals are the Hindus. Um Santhalis are the matter of
acculturation.
In the railway organization many Santhal men are engaged as gangmen and patrol men.
They are encompassed by Panchayti policy.
Based in the northern region of India, the Santhal is an agriculturist tribe with a settled
life. It is one of the largest tribe of the India. Their population is 40 lakhs (1991 census)
with a sex ratio of 1:1. They are based in the states of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal.
Their living places are Santhal Pargana (main living place of this tribe), Bhagalpur,
Maghhar, Hajari bagh, Ranchi, Singhbhumi, Dhanbad and Palamu districts.
They are of proto australoid origin. Their skin colour varies from black to dark brown.
Their language is Santhali, which is originated from the Mundari language (Mundari
language is of austro-asian family).
They are mainly living in the villages. In every village size, 10 to 50 families live. Every
village is divided in many Tolas and a chief heads these Tolas separately.
Santhal tribe is divided in 12 gotras. These are- Hansda,Murmu,Kisku, Hembram, Mandi,
Sauren, Tutu, Baske, Beshra, Pauria, Chore, Baidia. Beshra and Baidia gotras are
considered inferior. They are patriarchal and exogamous group. Mainly they prefer
nuclear family but extended family also exists.
Chacho- chhathiyar
This ritual is performed before the marriage. This ritual is the sign of his/her caste or
status in the community. Age is not fixed for this ritual. If a man or woman dies without
performing this ritual, that person is not brunt and no ceremony is conducted for him.
Marriage
In general practice they are monogamous. If wife is not fertile, in that case they do more
than one marriage. Surrorate marriage is permitted but cross cousin marriage are strictly
prohibited and it is a social taboo. They adopt many tribal methods in the selection of the
mates. Widow marriage is also performed but in a very simple manner. In case of
separation both male and female have the equal right. The main cause of separation of the
marriage is due the effect of witchcraft, sorcery and adultery. Divorce is also in practice.
In the general practice, it is known as “Bapla”. Marriage in same gotra is prohibited.
They do their marriages after the Shivaratri. Monday, Wednesday and Friday are
auspicious for their marriages.
The process of marriage is started by the “Raivarich” (a mediator). Ghar dekhi ritual is
performed by seeing the homes of the bride and bridegroom by the members of the both
families. Another ritual is “Tilak-Chadi” wherein both sides give gifts to the bride and
bridegroom.
Taka chal is kind of bride wealth, which is given by the groom side to the father of bride,
generally amounting to twelve rupees.
On a certain date groom side come to the bride’s home and the bride’s side with water
and stick of mango tree welcomes them. This ritual is known as “Daram-Dak”. Gud (a
preparation made by cane juice) is also given to groom side at the every door of the
village. After that they stay under a tree andcook their food. The bride side does not give
dinner.
Sindara ghan - It is the last ritual, which is associated with the vermilion. The groom’s
family reaches the door of bride’s father. Both bride and bridegroom are taken on the
shoulders of the members of both sides. In the same situation, groom puts vermilion on
the middle of the bride’s head five times. This is the culmination of the marriage process.
The role of Pandit (a man who performs the process of the marriage) shows their
association with the Hindu culture. Pandit is known as “Jogh-manjhi”.
They also consume a lot of liquor, which is known as “Handia”
Death ceremony
Death ceremony is same as Hindu does but the ritual of Teil nahan is slightly different.
Other rituals are – cremation, collection of bones and its disposal in a river and lastly
Shradha (a kind of bhoj). The community women wrap the dead body with turmeric and
teil (oil).
Teil nahan - this ritual is performed at the fifth day of the death. Every male member of
that village shaves their heads and take bath. After that thay offer the edible items to the
forefathers and to the dead person as well.
The remains of the dead person is known as Jad-baha, which is dipped in the river
especially in the Nai (Damoder river).
Religion
Santhals are Hindus. They have faith in the Lord Shiva. In the light of religion they are in
three sect- Bonga hoda, Safa hoda and Um hoda
Bonga hoda are associated with Hinduism. They have full faith in god- goddess and
witchcraft tradition. They believe in the Bonga buru (goddess) and in
Hapdanako(forefathers), who protect them from every natural and social calamities. They
use mantra (verse) for the worship of them, which is known as Bakhera in their local
language.
The males perform all the sacred work. Their religious place is known as “Jahere than”
and “Manjhi than”. The entrance of female is prohibited here.
Their main gods and goddesses are- “Marad buru”, “Jarehar era”, “Mondeko-tuiko”,
“Gonsai era”, “Odank bonga” and “Hapdanako(fore fathers)”. The most important god is
Marad buru, who is actually god Shiva. He is all in all in their social lives.
Safa hoda are those Santhals, who are protecting their original religion from the process
of acculturation especially from Christianity and Islam. This sect came in light due the
serious effort of saint Bhagirath, who started a safa hoda movement.
Um hoda are those Santhals, who are converted in to the Christianity. They numbers are
very small, but their association from their original place and their cultural pattern of life
is still untouched.
Festivals
Santhal start to celebrate their festival from the month of July. The main festivals are
“Eroke”, “Hariyad”, “Janpad”, “Sohrai”, “Sakrat”, “Bhagsim” and “Baha”.
Eroke is concerned with the agriculture and is celebrated in the month of July. At this
time they sow the seeds and do also sacrifice.
Hariyad is associated with the proper yield of cereals. They worship their gods for the
proper growth of crop.
Janpad is performed for the good storage of crop. A pig is sacrificed at the place
Jherethan(a sacred place). A feast is also given to the community but only men are
permitted for this feast.
Sohrai is the main festival of them and it is celebrated at the time of harvesting especially
is associated with paddy. In this festival every god goddess and forefathers are
worshipped. All the elder persons of the community are also honored. This festival span
is of five days.
Sakrat is celebrated only two days. It is associated with the welfare of the family.
Maradburu and other forefathers are worshipped.
Bhagsim is celebrated in the month of February. a hen is sacrificed at the bank of the
pond. On the same day, the social statuses of the community men are determined.
Vaha, it is the second largest festival of the Santhals. The literal meaning of the vaha is –
flower. It is celebrated in the month of March. They do not use any leaves or flowers
before the celebration of this festival. The span of this festival is of three days. This
festival is equivalent to the festival Vasantpanchmi of Hindus.
Political organization
Panchayat is their traditional political organization. Every village has its own panchayat.
The five people - Manjhi, Paranik, Jogh manjhi, Jogh paranik and Godet form Panchayat.
In their language this five men panchayat is known as Monde hod (five men). These five
members are elected at time of Bhagsim (a festival in February). Now Manjhi is
authorised for some power. So before the election, the official permission from
government is must.
Manjhi is the chief of the village and he is also the chief of the panchayat. Manjhi is
responsible for the land revenue.
Paranik is the vice- chief of the village. He is also the pseudo successor of the Manjhi.
Jogh manjhi is the head of the youth and is responsible for their moral. Jogh-paranik is
the assistant of the Jogh manjhi. Godte is the messenger of the Manjhi.
Panchayat’s function is mainly associated with land dispute, marriage, separation, rape,
adultery, witchcraft tradition, domestic animal disputes and division of the house.
If any dispute does not reach at its final end, another panchayat is formed by the five
Manjhis. This is known as Monde manjhi. The chief of this panchayat is called Pargana.
The assistant of the pargana is known as Dusmanjhi and messenger is called chakladar.
Pargana supervises more than fifteen villages.
It is crystal clear fact that Santhals are the Hindus. Um Santhalis are the matter of
acculturation.
In the railway organization many Santhal men are engaged as gangmen and patrol men.
They are encompassed by Panchayti policy.
Raji tribe
Raji
It is a lesser tribal group of Uttaranchal, whose population is 504 (1991 census). 259
males and 246 females show that the sex ratio is approximately 1:1. They inhabit the
Pittauragragh and Nainital districts of the Uttaranchal state. They live in dense forest.
They are known as Bankirat or lord of the forest with Mongolian character.
The total number of families is 132 and the family size is 3 to 5.
Birth Ceremony (Nagna gagan Chihi)
They don’t follow any birth ceremony until six months after the birth due to high
mortality rate of the infants. The oldest woman of the clan proposes the name of the
issue.
Marriage Ceremony
It is a monogamous group. Marriage is done by a simple Hindu method, but bride wealth
is in practice. They do not use liquor in their life. Neolocal (newly married couples) live
separately from their parents. Custom in general practice is that, Bijaula–Bijauli
(bridegroom & bride) worship their god at the end of the marriage with vermilion. Pariburi
(widow) marriage is in practice. Pandit has no role in their marriage.
Death ceremony
They bury the dead people. This ceremony completes in three days. Tiopani – a dead
man’s village shave their heads and take a bhoj (dinner) at the door of the dead person.
They leave the place or home, where the death occurs. This activity makes their living
style temporary.
Chand, Pal, Bist, Rautela, dhani, Berwal are their gotras.
They are mainly cultivators. It is very first tribe in which every family has obtained a
government house and agricultural land. Houses are double storied. The ground floor is
for the cattle and the top floor for their living.
Political Organization
The old men of the community constitute Panchayat, but has been replaced by the village
committee. The head (Sarpanch) is empowered by the government for handling small
disputes and punishments. The main disputes are land based.
Economy
Their economy is mainly based on agriculture but two Raji are in government service.
Eight are engaged in carpentry. Due to the influence of social welfare department, they
now use new agricultural equipment instead of the old axe or the plough and they
produce malta (orange), lemon and nuts. The main agricultural products are rice, wheat,
gram and popcorn (300 kg per acre). Fishing is another important economic pillar. Their
annual income is approximately Rs. 10,000/- p.a. but 70.37% of the total population is
living under the poverty line (1991 census).
Education
Raji are an illiterate group but currently a primary school in Kimkhola village of
Pittauragragh district is going on with 29 children. 74.80 % are illiterate (1991 census).
Religion
Basically they are Hindus, but their traditional Gods and Goddess are Chhurmul, Bhumia
devi, Ganianath, Mananath, Balchand, Malkajan, Hulsikal and Jaldevi, the forest god
(Churmul) is in the prime locus of their life.
Festivals
Apart from the Hindu festivals, they celebrate Joaljivi fair in the month of October. They
have full faith in magic sorcery and witchcraft tradition.
Presently they understand the utility of education, health, etc. So in the 8th five-year plan,
81 families have taken government assistance for their agricultural betterment, house and
education development. Nowadays, five Rajis are taking civil defense training as fourth
class employees. With the development of roads and communication, many changes are
affecting the people of the border areas. Due to the expansion of panchayati raj up to their
villages, every family has incorporated the new techniques of agriculture and cattle
rearing. But their population is decreasing day by day. In 1971, their population was 1918
but today they are 504. The government to save their lives launched many health
programmes. Till the 1906, they used to cover themselves with Malu (leaves and barks of
trees), where as now they are seen wearing Bahunia vahii (cloth). At the beginning of the
century, they lived in Mauvas (caves). A few decades back they used they use to leave
crudely made wooden theki, pala (a type of bowls), etc. at their doorsteps at night along
with symbols indicating the items they desired in exchange and they stealthily visited the
spot on the next night to collect these items. But all these habits have changed due to the
contact with the modern world. Now they go to the nearby market for selling and
purchasing.
It is a lesser tribal group of Uttaranchal, whose population is 504 (1991 census). 259
males and 246 females show that the sex ratio is approximately 1:1. They inhabit the
Pittauragragh and Nainital districts of the Uttaranchal state. They live in dense forest.
They are known as Bankirat or lord of the forest with Mongolian character.
The total number of families is 132 and the family size is 3 to 5.
Birth Ceremony (Nagna gagan Chihi)
They don’t follow any birth ceremony until six months after the birth due to high
mortality rate of the infants. The oldest woman of the clan proposes the name of the
issue.
Marriage Ceremony
It is a monogamous group. Marriage is done by a simple Hindu method, but bride wealth
is in practice. They do not use liquor in their life. Neolocal (newly married couples) live
separately from their parents. Custom in general practice is that, Bijaula–Bijauli
(bridegroom & bride) worship their god at the end of the marriage with vermilion. Pariburi
(widow) marriage is in practice. Pandit has no role in their marriage.
Death ceremony
They bury the dead people. This ceremony completes in three days. Tiopani – a dead
man’s village shave their heads and take a bhoj (dinner) at the door of the dead person.
They leave the place or home, where the death occurs. This activity makes their living
style temporary.
Chand, Pal, Bist, Rautela, dhani, Berwal are their gotras.
They are mainly cultivators. It is very first tribe in which every family has obtained a
government house and agricultural land. Houses are double storied. The ground floor is
for the cattle and the top floor for their living.
Political Organization
The old men of the community constitute Panchayat, but has been replaced by the village
committee. The head (Sarpanch) is empowered by the government for handling small
disputes and punishments. The main disputes are land based.
Economy
Their economy is mainly based on agriculture but two Raji are in government service.
Eight are engaged in carpentry. Due to the influence of social welfare department, they
now use new agricultural equipment instead of the old axe or the plough and they
produce malta (orange), lemon and nuts. The main agricultural products are rice, wheat,
gram and popcorn (300 kg per acre). Fishing is another important economic pillar. Their
annual income is approximately Rs. 10,000/- p.a. but 70.37% of the total population is
living under the poverty line (1991 census).
Education
Raji are an illiterate group but currently a primary school in Kimkhola village of
Pittauragragh district is going on with 29 children. 74.80 % are illiterate (1991 census).
Religion
Basically they are Hindus, but their traditional Gods and Goddess are Chhurmul, Bhumia
devi, Ganianath, Mananath, Balchand, Malkajan, Hulsikal and Jaldevi, the forest god
(Churmul) is in the prime locus of their life.
Festivals
Apart from the Hindu festivals, they celebrate Joaljivi fair in the month of October. They
have full faith in magic sorcery and witchcraft tradition.
Presently they understand the utility of education, health, etc. So in the 8th five-year plan,
81 families have taken government assistance for their agricultural betterment, house and
education development. Nowadays, five Rajis are taking civil defense training as fourth
class employees. With the development of roads and communication, many changes are
affecting the people of the border areas. Due to the expansion of panchayati raj up to their
villages, every family has incorporated the new techniques of agriculture and cattle
rearing. But their population is decreasing day by day. In 1971, their population was 1918
but today they are 504. The government to save their lives launched many health
programmes. Till the 1906, they used to cover themselves with Malu (leaves and barks of
trees), where as now they are seen wearing Bahunia vahii (cloth). At the beginning of the
century, they lived in Mauvas (caves). A few decades back they used they use to leave
crudely made wooden theki, pala (a type of bowls), etc. at their doorsteps at night along
with symbols indicating the items they desired in exchange and they stealthily visited the
spot on the next night to collect these items. But all these habits have changed due to the
contact with the modern world. Now they go to the nearby market for selling and
purchasing.
Nicobari tribe
Nicobari
(Southern Region)
The island of Car Nicobar contains 15 villages namely Parka, Malakka, Tamalu,
Kinyuka, Chuk-Chu-Chacha, Tapoiming, Jaiyanthi, Small Lapathi, Kinmai, Mus Te-Top,
Sawai, Orang, Kinyis and Kakna with a population of 15,781. Sex ratio is 1:0.97.
Their physical features are Mongoloid (it is a clear influence of Burma with prominent
cheekbones, epicanthic fold on eyelid, hairless skin).
They speak Nicobari language (a modified form of Roman) and their script is also
influenced by it (Austro-Asiatic sub-family language).
Nuclear family is the locus of this tribe. 20 Tuhaits (clan of many families make one
Tuhait) exit among them.
Birth Ceremony
Pregnant women can’t go into the kitchen or the church, nor can she eat fish, pork or
meat. Pati-Sang-Neya (place of the childbirth) is strictly prohibited for the entry of any
other person. Ketaku ritual is celebrated in the sixth or the seventh month of the
pregnancy, in which the expectant mother takes a bath and a dinner to the community is
given.
Vinakatkoi ritual is celebrated on the seventh day after the birth and is the naming
ceremony of the baby. Forty days after the birth of the child, the mother takes a sacred
bath. The god parents (the couple who support the child) are responsible for child-rearing
up to the age of twelve, after which the child is return back to its birth parents in a
church.
Marriage Ceremony
Patrilocal and matrilocal marriages are in practice. Ghulam tradition (when the husband
lives in his wife’s house) is very common. Meher (bride wealth in Muslims) is prevalent
among them. Elopement or love marriage is common, but the permission of the priest is a
must. Marriage is completed in three Sundays. If both sides do not finalize the marriage
within the stipulated time, then the marriage is supposed to be annulled. They are Tuhait
(clan) exogamous. Levirate and surrorate marriages are possible. They do not carry out
marriages in the months of November, December, March and April.
Death Ceremony
They neither bury nor burn the dead body. They keep the body in a sandal lotion for 5 to
6 years. After which, they kept the skeleton as a representative of the soul of the dead
person and worship it. The bell of the village (which is hung of a tree) is rung three times
with three strokes generally and in the case of an old person is ring four times with three
strokes to commemorate the death. Pati-Kupah (a place where the dead body is given a
sacred bath) is near to the dead person’s home. Kasang (coffin) is kept in the Pati-Kupah.
Farewell to the soul is celebrated on the seventh day after the death.
The widow can’t come out of the house up to forty days after the death of the husband.
Religion
Currently, 96% Nicobari are Christian. Before the year 1986, they were followers of
Hinduism. There are 10 churches in 10 villages (Mus, Small Lapathi, Kinmai, Big
Lapathi, Chuk-Chu-Chucha, Kinyuka, Tamalu, Parka, Malakka, Kakna, Kimyus, Orang
and Sawai). There are 29 Fathers (priests) are propagating Christianity. 3.8% are Muslim
and 0.2% are Hindus (Tamil Hindus). Four Hindu temples (one each of Durga and
Krishna and one of Murgan – son of Lord Shiva) and three mosques are there. Pongal
festival (14th January) and festival of Murgan (9-December to 1-January) is celebrated.
The Christians celebrate Easter and Good Friday.
They have faith in souls and on the 2nd of November, they worship the souls, but the soul
of a person who has committed suicide is not worshipped. Kan-ha-un (to eat pork)
festival is concerned with prosperity. Kishango Paratin (Moon festival) is celebrated with
different names - Kain-eini-La-uni (in June), Chano-Hayni (in August), Kinrupa (in
June), Hanoyani (in July) and Tanaha (in May).
Nayal-Pa-Aam (in January) is concerned with malevolent souls. Na-Kaya (fishing) is
celebrated in February. Kiluk-Pa-Te is celebrated in March for the collection of raw
coconut.
Crop festival (in April), increase in crop production and number of pigs is celebrated with
the May festival. The month of June is connected with any festival. July is for Ta-mi-
Luana (benevolent) and Ma-Aa-fai (malevolent) spirits. The month of August and
September is the fishing festival and October for environment. November is concerned
with the departure of the soul of the departed people during the calendar year. December
is for welfare of the community. White and black magic are very popular and witchcraft
encompasses this tribe.
Nagmoke tavui (solar eclipse) and taseko (rainbow) have religious importance. Sio
Panam, Yom Panam, Kaoko, Tohatacho, Tosinrol, Tokauri and Kokkoreki are there earth
spirits, which they pray to.
Economy
Coconut and betel nut, supplemented by fishing is the main source of their earning. 12%
of the Nicobari are in government jobs and 14% are in traditional trading. Hunting with
the help of dogs is in practice. Their economy encompasses many spheres – cultivation
(24.62%), fishing (8.52%), horticulture (7.57%), service (13.63%), teaching (1.89%) and
business (2.08%).
Both sexes have equal rights to the property. The Tuhait (clan) and family property are
not transferable at the time of the marriage. The bride or the groom who join the Tuhait
automatically gains these rights.
Education
The Nicobari have 70.39% literacy among them of which 0.35% are postgraduates. Five
primary schools, three junior high schools and two intermediate colleges are their
locality.
Political Organization
Each of the fifteen villages have traditional panchayats, headed by captains and captains
elect chief-captain (headman), who resolves all land disputes, marriage problems.
Every home is equipped with television and dish antenna. They have a telephone
exchange. There are two post-offices in Chuk-Chu-Chucha and Big Lapathi village.
Some Nicobari are engaged in computer education. Football is their favorite game.
Nicobaris have won many trophies at the national level. They are fully familiar with
modernity.
Onge, Jarwa, Santinelese and Shampen have almost the same socio-cultural life as
Nicobari have.
(Southern Region)
The island of Car Nicobar contains 15 villages namely Parka, Malakka, Tamalu,
Kinyuka, Chuk-Chu-Chacha, Tapoiming, Jaiyanthi, Small Lapathi, Kinmai, Mus Te-Top,
Sawai, Orang, Kinyis and Kakna with a population of 15,781. Sex ratio is 1:0.97.
Their physical features are Mongoloid (it is a clear influence of Burma with prominent
cheekbones, epicanthic fold on eyelid, hairless skin).
They speak Nicobari language (a modified form of Roman) and their script is also
influenced by it (Austro-Asiatic sub-family language).
Nuclear family is the locus of this tribe. 20 Tuhaits (clan of many families make one
Tuhait) exit among them.
Birth Ceremony
Pregnant women can’t go into the kitchen or the church, nor can she eat fish, pork or
meat. Pati-Sang-Neya (place of the childbirth) is strictly prohibited for the entry of any
other person. Ketaku ritual is celebrated in the sixth or the seventh month of the
pregnancy, in which the expectant mother takes a bath and a dinner to the community is
given.
Vinakatkoi ritual is celebrated on the seventh day after the birth and is the naming
ceremony of the baby. Forty days after the birth of the child, the mother takes a sacred
bath. The god parents (the couple who support the child) are responsible for child-rearing
up to the age of twelve, after which the child is return back to its birth parents in a
church.
Marriage Ceremony
Patrilocal and matrilocal marriages are in practice. Ghulam tradition (when the husband
lives in his wife’s house) is very common. Meher (bride wealth in Muslims) is prevalent
among them. Elopement or love marriage is common, but the permission of the priest is a
must. Marriage is completed in three Sundays. If both sides do not finalize the marriage
within the stipulated time, then the marriage is supposed to be annulled. They are Tuhait
(clan) exogamous. Levirate and surrorate marriages are possible. They do not carry out
marriages in the months of November, December, March and April.
Death Ceremony
They neither bury nor burn the dead body. They keep the body in a sandal lotion for 5 to
6 years. After which, they kept the skeleton as a representative of the soul of the dead
person and worship it. The bell of the village (which is hung of a tree) is rung three times
with three strokes generally and in the case of an old person is ring four times with three
strokes to commemorate the death. Pati-Kupah (a place where the dead body is given a
sacred bath) is near to the dead person’s home. Kasang (coffin) is kept in the Pati-Kupah.
Farewell to the soul is celebrated on the seventh day after the death.
The widow can’t come out of the house up to forty days after the death of the husband.
Religion
Currently, 96% Nicobari are Christian. Before the year 1986, they were followers of
Hinduism. There are 10 churches in 10 villages (Mus, Small Lapathi, Kinmai, Big
Lapathi, Chuk-Chu-Chucha, Kinyuka, Tamalu, Parka, Malakka, Kakna, Kimyus, Orang
and Sawai). There are 29 Fathers (priests) are propagating Christianity. 3.8% are Muslim
and 0.2% are Hindus (Tamil Hindus). Four Hindu temples (one each of Durga and
Krishna and one of Murgan – son of Lord Shiva) and three mosques are there. Pongal
festival (14th January) and festival of Murgan (9-December to 1-January) is celebrated.
The Christians celebrate Easter and Good Friday.
They have faith in souls and on the 2nd of November, they worship the souls, but the soul
of a person who has committed suicide is not worshipped. Kan-ha-un (to eat pork)
festival is concerned with prosperity. Kishango Paratin (Moon festival) is celebrated with
different names - Kain-eini-La-uni (in June), Chano-Hayni (in August), Kinrupa (in
June), Hanoyani (in July) and Tanaha (in May).
Nayal-Pa-Aam (in January) is concerned with malevolent souls. Na-Kaya (fishing) is
celebrated in February. Kiluk-Pa-Te is celebrated in March for the collection of raw
coconut.
Crop festival (in April), increase in crop production and number of pigs is celebrated with
the May festival. The month of June is connected with any festival. July is for Ta-mi-
Luana (benevolent) and Ma-Aa-fai (malevolent) spirits. The month of August and
September is the fishing festival and October for environment. November is concerned
with the departure of the soul of the departed people during the calendar year. December
is for welfare of the community. White and black magic are very popular and witchcraft
encompasses this tribe.
Nagmoke tavui (solar eclipse) and taseko (rainbow) have religious importance. Sio
Panam, Yom Panam, Kaoko, Tohatacho, Tosinrol, Tokauri and Kokkoreki are there earth
spirits, which they pray to.
Economy
Coconut and betel nut, supplemented by fishing is the main source of their earning. 12%
of the Nicobari are in government jobs and 14% are in traditional trading. Hunting with
the help of dogs is in practice. Their economy encompasses many spheres – cultivation
(24.62%), fishing (8.52%), horticulture (7.57%), service (13.63%), teaching (1.89%) and
business (2.08%).
Both sexes have equal rights to the property. The Tuhait (clan) and family property are
not transferable at the time of the marriage. The bride or the groom who join the Tuhait
automatically gains these rights.
Education
The Nicobari have 70.39% literacy among them of which 0.35% are postgraduates. Five
primary schools, three junior high schools and two intermediate colleges are their
locality.
Political Organization
Each of the fifteen villages have traditional panchayats, headed by captains and captains
elect chief-captain (headman), who resolves all land disputes, marriage problems.
Every home is equipped with television and dish antenna. They have a telephone
exchange. There are two post-offices in Chuk-Chu-Chucha and Big Lapathi village.
Some Nicobari are engaged in computer education. Football is their favorite game.
Nicobaris have won many trophies at the national level. They are fully familiar with
modernity.
Onge, Jarwa, Santinelese and Shampen have almost the same socio-cultural life as
Nicobari have.
Munda tribe
Munda
It is an important tribe of northern India. The main evidence of the Munda is our epic as
Rigaveda, Mahabharat and Ramayana, where description about the Munda is present in
sufficient detail. Their population is 12 lakhs (1991 census)
Today the inhabitant place of Munda is Chota Nagpur district of the Bihar State. Their
language is Mundari, which is not only spoken in this tribe but also by the adjacent
communities.
Munda are basically agriculturists. Their agricultural land is near to their village. Their
village size is from 50 to 100 households. In the middle of the village, a dance land
exists. It is a place under the dense trees, where big stones are kept for the sitting purpose.
Another characteristic of their village is “Gitiora”. It is a sleeping place for unmarried
young males and females of the tribe, when they attain adult age. The place of lunch and
dinner of the family is known as Mandi-ora. It is also the place of forefathers.
Their attire is simple. Males wear a piece of cloth on their waist, which is known as
“Batoi”. Women wear a dhoti, which covers the upper and lower part of the body.
Munda tribe is divided in two part. One branch is known as “Mahali-mundako” and other
is “Kompat –mundako”. Both branches are endogamous. Both branches are separated
according to the influence of Hinduism.
Munda are divided in many exogamy units, which is known as “kili” (all the members of
one kili are the descendants of one forefather). Every name of the kili is associated with
the name of a animal, tree or with plant. The names of the kili are like “Hemrome”,
“Hasda”, “Soren” etc.
It is a patriarchal and patrilocal society.
At the level of kinship, joking relation is permitted between the grand father and grand
daughter. Names of the children are based on the name of their grand father. The place of
the maternal uncle is very momentous in every sphere of the life.
Birth ceremony-
Birth is the matter of Bonga (forefather). At the time of first birth they worship to “Garsi
Bonga” (who protects the issue during the pregnancy). They do not create any difference
between the male or female issue. A house becomes impure at the time of the birth. This
purity is performed by the worship of forefathers, who are in the “Eding”. They also use
“Dianili”, (a kind of liquor).
Namkaran sanskar (naming ceremony) - is known as “Sakin”, which is performed on the
next day of the birth.
Other ceremony regarding birth is “Luturtukuei”, which is associated with Kanchhedan
(ear piercing).
Marriage ceremony-
They are basically monogamous but other types of the marriages are also in practice. A
male is not eligible for the marriage, until he becomes the hunter and female can not
marry, until she knits the mat or becomes the expert in the work of threading.
Capture marriage is in practice. It is due to the effect of high bride wealth. A male
kidnaps a girl from a public place with the help of his friends. They also do “Raji-
Khushi” (consent) marriage. In this marriage, bride wealth is not in main consideration.
Marriage by intrusion is also in existence. A nubile girl goes to that male’s home, who is
her proposed husband and sits there until she gets the consent of that person for the
marriage. Due to the very high bride wealth a kind of marriage- service marriage also
exists. In case of widow marriage, bride wealth is not in practice. Such marriage is known
as “Sagai”.
During the process of the marriage, if any mishapp occurs, the marriage is cancelled.
Engagement is known as “Wala”. On this day bride wealth is also fixed. Bride wealth is
also known as “Kuri gonong” in the Mundari language. Now they take money instead of
the cattle. Bride wealth may be given in installments also. They perform their marriage
after the harvesting. Their marriage takes its full shape, when male fills the vermilion in
the middle of the woman's head. It is sign of acculturation and evidence of their
association with Hindus.
Separation is very common in this tribal group. It is decided by their traditional
panchayat that how much money should be returned. Separation ceremony is known as
“Sakanchari”. Remarriage is common.
Munda family lives under one roof but their kitchens are separate, which shows the
existence of nuclear family.
Death ceremony-
Munda are not very rich. So due to the poor economy they do not burn the dead body but
rich Munda do this. In general practice they bury the dead body. Those Munda, who burn
the dead person, bury the dead body in the rainy season.
Ambal adeir - is a ritual, which is done on the third, fifth, seventh or ninth day after the
death. On these days, the community men gather at the dead person’s home. They cut
their hairs, beard and nails. It is the sign of purity. In the same day the soul of the dead
person is established in the Edings (the place of the forefathers). After this ritual, a
general life starts.
Jantopa- it is another ritual, which is celebrated once in a year. In this ritual, the bones of
the dead person are buried in the Sasan (a place in the Munda village, where the bones of
the dead person are buried).
Religion-
Munda are very religious. They have faith mainly in the goddess, is known as “Sinbonga”
(the sign of the day). Bonga is the sign of goddess. Sinbonga also represents the god Sun.
They believe that formerly Singbonga comes to earth for the sacred people. He likes only
the sacrifice of the white animals. Every new work is done by the worship of him. Munda
leave some food for him before taking their lunch or dinner.
Other division is of the goddess of the village, who is known as “Hatu-bongako” and the
domestic goddess known as “Orabongako”. They have also faith in evil spirits, who come
into existence due to the occurance of unusual deaths.
Their natural gods are - “Buru-bonga”, “Ekir-bonga” and “Nama-bonga”. They are found
between the benevolent spirit (Menita bonga) and malevolent (Banita bonga)spirit. They
protect the community person.
Birsa Munda was an extraordinary man of their tribe, who did lot of work for their
welfare. So he is established as a god among their social life. They do not do any work on
Thursdays in the memory of Birsa Munda.
Festival
They celebrate all the festivals of Hindus. Their main festival is – Maghi parva. It is
celebrated in the month of January.
Faghu parva is similar to the Holi of the Hindus. In the next day of this festival they go
for hunting.
Sarhul - it is celebrated in the month of March, at the time of harvesting.
Karma and Dasai (Dussehera)- it is borrowed from the Hindus.
Sohrai - This festival is celebrated for the protection of the cattle and on this day,
sacrifice is done to the deity “Goria bonga”
Soso bonga parva is celebrated only on those places, where the songs of Singbonga are
sung.
Political organization-
Munda have a variety of the panchayats - Tola panchayat, Hatu panchayat and Perha
panchayat. All these panchayats observe the rule and regulation of the tribe. The
panchayat hear the matters of marriage dispute, rape, land dispute etc. They impose a
penalty for every matter.
The chief of the village is known as Munda or Mahato. Other elder persons are also the
members of the Hatu panchayat. Some powers are given to this panchayat.
Parha panchayat has more rights. The chief of this panchayat is known as Parha raja.
Other assistants are - Diwan, Kotwal, Pande, Lal and Daroga (all these are administrative
people, who maintain the law and order). Parha panchayat hears all the disputes in the
same manner as the judicial court of the government. In the panchayat, a man takes oath
with the paddy, cow-dung, and soil. All these items are very much associated with his
cultural life.
Nowadays, traditional panchayat has been replaced by the governmental panchayat. It is
more powerful due to the influence of the government rules, but Munda have total faith in
their traditional institutions. If any Munda is not satisfied by the decision of the Parha
panchayat, he approaches the government panchayat, indicating a social change. Some
Munda are in government jobs.
It is an important tribe of northern India. The main evidence of the Munda is our epic as
Rigaveda, Mahabharat and Ramayana, where description about the Munda is present in
sufficient detail. Their population is 12 lakhs (1991 census)
Today the inhabitant place of Munda is Chota Nagpur district of the Bihar State. Their
language is Mundari, which is not only spoken in this tribe but also by the adjacent
communities.
Munda are basically agriculturists. Their agricultural land is near to their village. Their
village size is from 50 to 100 households. In the middle of the village, a dance land
exists. It is a place under the dense trees, where big stones are kept for the sitting purpose.
Another characteristic of their village is “Gitiora”. It is a sleeping place for unmarried
young males and females of the tribe, when they attain adult age. The place of lunch and
dinner of the family is known as Mandi-ora. It is also the place of forefathers.
Their attire is simple. Males wear a piece of cloth on their waist, which is known as
“Batoi”. Women wear a dhoti, which covers the upper and lower part of the body.
Munda tribe is divided in two part. One branch is known as “Mahali-mundako” and other
is “Kompat –mundako”. Both branches are endogamous. Both branches are separated
according to the influence of Hinduism.
Munda are divided in many exogamy units, which is known as “kili” (all the members of
one kili are the descendants of one forefather). Every name of the kili is associated with
the name of a animal, tree or with plant. The names of the kili are like “Hemrome”,
“Hasda”, “Soren” etc.
It is a patriarchal and patrilocal society.
At the level of kinship, joking relation is permitted between the grand father and grand
daughter. Names of the children are based on the name of their grand father. The place of
the maternal uncle is very momentous in every sphere of the life.
Birth ceremony-
Birth is the matter of Bonga (forefather). At the time of first birth they worship to “Garsi
Bonga” (who protects the issue during the pregnancy). They do not create any difference
between the male or female issue. A house becomes impure at the time of the birth. This
purity is performed by the worship of forefathers, who are in the “Eding”. They also use
“Dianili”, (a kind of liquor).
Namkaran sanskar (naming ceremony) - is known as “Sakin”, which is performed on the
next day of the birth.
Other ceremony regarding birth is “Luturtukuei”, which is associated with Kanchhedan
(ear piercing).
Marriage ceremony-
They are basically monogamous but other types of the marriages are also in practice. A
male is not eligible for the marriage, until he becomes the hunter and female can not
marry, until she knits the mat or becomes the expert in the work of threading.
Capture marriage is in practice. It is due to the effect of high bride wealth. A male
kidnaps a girl from a public place with the help of his friends. They also do “Raji-
Khushi” (consent) marriage. In this marriage, bride wealth is not in main consideration.
Marriage by intrusion is also in existence. A nubile girl goes to that male’s home, who is
her proposed husband and sits there until she gets the consent of that person for the
marriage. Due to the very high bride wealth a kind of marriage- service marriage also
exists. In case of widow marriage, bride wealth is not in practice. Such marriage is known
as “Sagai”.
During the process of the marriage, if any mishapp occurs, the marriage is cancelled.
Engagement is known as “Wala”. On this day bride wealth is also fixed. Bride wealth is
also known as “Kuri gonong” in the Mundari language. Now they take money instead of
the cattle. Bride wealth may be given in installments also. They perform their marriage
after the harvesting. Their marriage takes its full shape, when male fills the vermilion in
the middle of the woman's head. It is sign of acculturation and evidence of their
association with Hindus.
Separation is very common in this tribal group. It is decided by their traditional
panchayat that how much money should be returned. Separation ceremony is known as
“Sakanchari”. Remarriage is common.
Munda family lives under one roof but their kitchens are separate, which shows the
existence of nuclear family.
Death ceremony-
Munda are not very rich. So due to the poor economy they do not burn the dead body but
rich Munda do this. In general practice they bury the dead body. Those Munda, who burn
the dead person, bury the dead body in the rainy season.
Ambal adeir - is a ritual, which is done on the third, fifth, seventh or ninth day after the
death. On these days, the community men gather at the dead person’s home. They cut
their hairs, beard and nails. It is the sign of purity. In the same day the soul of the dead
person is established in the Edings (the place of the forefathers). After this ritual, a
general life starts.
Jantopa- it is another ritual, which is celebrated once in a year. In this ritual, the bones of
the dead person are buried in the Sasan (a place in the Munda village, where the bones of
the dead person are buried).
Religion-
Munda are very religious. They have faith mainly in the goddess, is known as “Sinbonga”
(the sign of the day). Bonga is the sign of goddess. Sinbonga also represents the god Sun.
They believe that formerly Singbonga comes to earth for the sacred people. He likes only
the sacrifice of the white animals. Every new work is done by the worship of him. Munda
leave some food for him before taking their lunch or dinner.
Other division is of the goddess of the village, who is known as “Hatu-bongako” and the
domestic goddess known as “Orabongako”. They have also faith in evil spirits, who come
into existence due to the occurance of unusual deaths.
Their natural gods are - “Buru-bonga”, “Ekir-bonga” and “Nama-bonga”. They are found
between the benevolent spirit (Menita bonga) and malevolent (Banita bonga)spirit. They
protect the community person.
Birsa Munda was an extraordinary man of their tribe, who did lot of work for their
welfare. So he is established as a god among their social life. They do not do any work on
Thursdays in the memory of Birsa Munda.
Festival
They celebrate all the festivals of Hindus. Their main festival is – Maghi parva. It is
celebrated in the month of January.
Faghu parva is similar to the Holi of the Hindus. In the next day of this festival they go
for hunting.
Sarhul - it is celebrated in the month of March, at the time of harvesting.
Karma and Dasai (Dussehera)- it is borrowed from the Hindus.
Sohrai - This festival is celebrated for the protection of the cattle and on this day,
sacrifice is done to the deity “Goria bonga”
Soso bonga parva is celebrated only on those places, where the songs of Singbonga are
sung.
Political organization-
Munda have a variety of the panchayats - Tola panchayat, Hatu panchayat and Perha
panchayat. All these panchayats observe the rule and regulation of the tribe. The
panchayat hear the matters of marriage dispute, rape, land dispute etc. They impose a
penalty for every matter.
The chief of the village is known as Munda or Mahato. Other elder persons are also the
members of the Hatu panchayat. Some powers are given to this panchayat.
Parha panchayat has more rights. The chief of this panchayat is known as Parha raja.
Other assistants are - Diwan, Kotwal, Pande, Lal and Daroga (all these are administrative
people, who maintain the law and order). Parha panchayat hears all the disputes in the
same manner as the judicial court of the government. In the panchayat, a man takes oath
with the paddy, cow-dung, and soil. All these items are very much associated with his
cultural life.
Nowadays, traditional panchayat has been replaced by the governmental panchayat. It is
more powerful due to the influence of the government rules, but Munda have total faith in
their traditional institutions. If any Munda is not satisfied by the decision of the Parha
panchayat, he approaches the government panchayat, indicating a social change. Some
Munda are in government jobs.
kuki tribe
Kuki
It is a tribal group of the Imphal district of state of Manipur. They are also in the Tipera,
Kuchar and Lushai hilly areas. Their population is 33,812 (1991 census) and their sex
ratio is 1 : 1.8.
They are divided into two subgroups Thados (New Kuki) and Old Kuki. The members of
each subgroup do not marry into the other. They have Mongolian features (oblique eyes
with epicanthic fold and prominent cheekbones).
The Kuki villages are concerned with name of gotra and the road of the village is
decorated with the belongings of the prestigious dead persons. At the sides of the road
earthen pots, skull of animals and blankets are kept. In the village, their houses are made
of bamboo.
Birth Ceremony
They follow some taboos (prohibitions) during the pregnancy and they worship Pathain
spirits, who protect the child during the pregnancy. They give feast and ju (a kind of rice
wine) at the time of the birth to the community men.
Marriage Ceremony
At the level of the gotra, they are exogamous and they are engaged in polygamy (a man
marries more then one woman). Bride wealth is high. If the husband wants separation,
then he has to return all the bride wealth to the bride but if the bride wants separation, it is
not required. Two Makkas (son-in-law) can live in their in-laws home. Makkas in general
practice are the husbands of the first and the second daughters. Makkas are the
representatives of the in-laws home. On every religious and social event, their presence is
a must. They do all the important work at the time of marriage and death. On the
occurrence of any disease in their family, they carry out sacrifices.
Widow marriage is in practice in the case of childless females. At the time of marriage,
they serve fried fish and ju (rice made wine).
Death Ceremony
After the occurrence of death they sacrifice a monkey and offer ju (wine) to their
Khuarainaga (god), they burn the dead body and make monuments of the dead person.
Religion
They are Hindus but Christianity is spreading among them. Mainly they worship different
spirits. Pathain – their deity who looks after the welfare of the community and pregnant
woman. Khuarainaga – a spirit who protects them diseases (malaria). Sakhua – a god of
gotra, who protects all the members of a gotra. They have no priests. Any body can be a
priest, but every gotra has at least one priest.
Festival
Sakhua, Khal, Dayabal festival are celebrated for the worship of Gods. Their main
festival is Char Khunt. This festival is done at the time of the jhum cultivation. It spans
over four days. Pig sacrifice is performed and ju is distributed.
Education
Kuki are 13% literate and increasing. Two government schools and one missionary
school are in their area.
Economy
Their economy is related with jhum (shifing) cultivation and fishing. They are engaged in
handicraft work and fruit production. They make earthen pots.
Property is inherited from the father to the youngest son of the family. If any family is
childless, adoption is an alternative and is very frequent.
Young Kuki males live is Jaual-bukh (youth house), where they learn dance, and singing
and sexual philosophy. Hotu (oldest person) is the chief of the Jaual-bukh.
In the light of education and Panchayati raj system Kuki are approaching modern life but
adopting new areas of economy as bamboo-bucket manufacturing. Thul, Doren (different
types of buckets) are popular in the modern market. They are becoming weavers and
dyer, which is making a significant change in their lives.
It is a tribal group of the Imphal district of state of Manipur. They are also in the Tipera,
Kuchar and Lushai hilly areas. Their population is 33,812 (1991 census) and their sex
ratio is 1 : 1.8.
They are divided into two subgroups Thados (New Kuki) and Old Kuki. The members of
each subgroup do not marry into the other. They have Mongolian features (oblique eyes
with epicanthic fold and prominent cheekbones).
The Kuki villages are concerned with name of gotra and the road of the village is
decorated with the belongings of the prestigious dead persons. At the sides of the road
earthen pots, skull of animals and blankets are kept. In the village, their houses are made
of bamboo.
Birth Ceremony
They follow some taboos (prohibitions) during the pregnancy and they worship Pathain
spirits, who protect the child during the pregnancy. They give feast and ju (a kind of rice
wine) at the time of the birth to the community men.
Marriage Ceremony
At the level of the gotra, they are exogamous and they are engaged in polygamy (a man
marries more then one woman). Bride wealth is high. If the husband wants separation,
then he has to return all the bride wealth to the bride but if the bride wants separation, it is
not required. Two Makkas (son-in-law) can live in their in-laws home. Makkas in general
practice are the husbands of the first and the second daughters. Makkas are the
representatives of the in-laws home. On every religious and social event, their presence is
a must. They do all the important work at the time of marriage and death. On the
occurrence of any disease in their family, they carry out sacrifices.
Widow marriage is in practice in the case of childless females. At the time of marriage,
they serve fried fish and ju (rice made wine).
Death Ceremony
After the occurrence of death they sacrifice a monkey and offer ju (wine) to their
Khuarainaga (god), they burn the dead body and make monuments of the dead person.
Religion
They are Hindus but Christianity is spreading among them. Mainly they worship different
spirits. Pathain – their deity who looks after the welfare of the community and pregnant
woman. Khuarainaga – a spirit who protects them diseases (malaria). Sakhua – a god of
gotra, who protects all the members of a gotra. They have no priests. Any body can be a
priest, but every gotra has at least one priest.
Festival
Sakhua, Khal, Dayabal festival are celebrated for the worship of Gods. Their main
festival is Char Khunt. This festival is done at the time of the jhum cultivation. It spans
over four days. Pig sacrifice is performed and ju is distributed.
Education
Kuki are 13% literate and increasing. Two government schools and one missionary
school are in their area.
Economy
Their economy is related with jhum (shifing) cultivation and fishing. They are engaged in
handicraft work and fruit production. They make earthen pots.
Property is inherited from the father to the youngest son of the family. If any family is
childless, adoption is an alternative and is very frequent.
Young Kuki males live is Jaual-bukh (youth house), where they learn dance, and singing
and sexual philosophy. Hotu (oldest person) is the chief of the Jaual-bukh.
In the light of education and Panchayati raj system Kuki are approaching modern life but
adopting new areas of economy as bamboo-bucket manufacturing. Thul, Doren (different
types of buckets) are popular in the modern market. They are becoming weavers and
dyer, which is making a significant change in their lives.
Konda reddis
Konda Reddis
(Southern Region)
Konda (forest) is a tribal group of Hyderabad and East Godavari districts of Andhra
Pradesh with strength of 48,609 (1991 census) and their sex ratio is 1:0.95.
They are divided into many sections differing in the manner of their assimilation to the
neighboring, economically more advanced Hindu castes.
Their racial composition, which includes primitive veddiod as well as more progressive
strains (brown skin color, medium stature, broad nose, hairless body, black head hair,
black eyes and broad forehead).
Like most of the other population of Andhra Pradesh, they speak Telugu (Dravidian
language family).
Birth Ceremony
Konda Reddi follow some taboos (prohibition) during pregnancy. Pregnant women
cannot touch any sacred items specially forest products till one month after the birth. The
pregnant woman is considered to be as a goddess, who is going to add a member to the
clan. Paidai (birth) ritual is celebrated at the time of birth and Konda devta (forest god) is
worshipped. They offer goat as a sacrifice to him and give a dinner to the community.
Marriage Ceremony
Konda (forest dweller) are gotra exogamous. Intrusion and probation (a woman spends
some time at her proposed husband’s house), consent and elopement marriages are in
practice. Bride wealth makes an easy environment for the settlement of the marriage. The
marriage ceremony starts with the proposal of the bride from the bridegroom’s side and
ends with the departure of the bride for the bridegroom’s home. They worship earth deity
and sacrifice pigs and fowls for prosperous life. A community dinner is also given.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body and have faith in souls as forefathers. They offer sacrifice to
Konda devta (forest god) for the welfare of the soul. The death ceremony lasts for three
days.
Religion
Their religious beliefs resemble the Hindus. The priest acts as the head of the community.
His position is usually hereditary in the male line and his functions are mainly in the
religious sphere. He acts as a mediator between man and the local deities, to secure the
prosperity of the community. He inaugurates the sowing the sowing of the grain crops
and propitiates Mother Earth with sacrifice of pigs and fowls. The Reddis attitude
towards other deities and spirits is one of caution rather than reverence, for these
supernatural beings are deemed as potentially dangerous as well as helpful. The ordinary
people cannot see Konda devta, but there are magicians and shamans, who can
communicate with supernatural forces in dreams as well as in a state of trance. The effect
of Shiva (a Hindu god) is also visible.
Economy
They depend on slash and burn (shifting) cultivation. Traditionally, the economy of the
Reddis is based on the periodic felling of the forest and the cultivation of various millets,
maize, pulses and vegetables in the resulting clearing. Podu (type of tillage, in which the
axe and not the plough is the primary instrument) is in common practice. Reddi
agriculture represents a crude form of cultivation as may be found anywhere on the
Asiatic mainland. Reddis subsist on wild forest produce, eating the sago-like pith of the
caryota palm or the kernel of mango stones. They also hunt with bows and arrows and
those living on the banks of the Godavari river supplement their food supply by fishing in
dugout canoes.
Traditionally the ownership of the land was vested in local groups, whose members may
hunt, collect and cultivate anywhere within the territory belonging to the community.
Education
1.7% are taking primary education. Due to residing in the forest and hills, their lifestyle is
still traditional.
The improvement of communications in recent years has made the Reddis habitat
accessible to outsiders. The commercial exploitation of the forests has brought about a
change in their living style and has involved the loss of freedom and independence of
their traditional life-style.
(Southern Region)
Konda (forest) is a tribal group of Hyderabad and East Godavari districts of Andhra
Pradesh with strength of 48,609 (1991 census) and their sex ratio is 1:0.95.
They are divided into many sections differing in the manner of their assimilation to the
neighboring, economically more advanced Hindu castes.
Their racial composition, which includes primitive veddiod as well as more progressive
strains (brown skin color, medium stature, broad nose, hairless body, black head hair,
black eyes and broad forehead).
Like most of the other population of Andhra Pradesh, they speak Telugu (Dravidian
language family).
Birth Ceremony
Konda Reddi follow some taboos (prohibition) during pregnancy. Pregnant women
cannot touch any sacred items specially forest products till one month after the birth. The
pregnant woman is considered to be as a goddess, who is going to add a member to the
clan. Paidai (birth) ritual is celebrated at the time of birth and Konda devta (forest god) is
worshipped. They offer goat as a sacrifice to him and give a dinner to the community.
Marriage Ceremony
Konda (forest dweller) are gotra exogamous. Intrusion and probation (a woman spends
some time at her proposed husband’s house), consent and elopement marriages are in
practice. Bride wealth makes an easy environment for the settlement of the marriage. The
marriage ceremony starts with the proposal of the bride from the bridegroom’s side and
ends with the departure of the bride for the bridegroom’s home. They worship earth deity
and sacrifice pigs and fowls for prosperous life. A community dinner is also given.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body and have faith in souls as forefathers. They offer sacrifice to
Konda devta (forest god) for the welfare of the soul. The death ceremony lasts for three
days.
Religion
Their religious beliefs resemble the Hindus. The priest acts as the head of the community.
His position is usually hereditary in the male line and his functions are mainly in the
religious sphere. He acts as a mediator between man and the local deities, to secure the
prosperity of the community. He inaugurates the sowing the sowing of the grain crops
and propitiates Mother Earth with sacrifice of pigs and fowls. The Reddis attitude
towards other deities and spirits is one of caution rather than reverence, for these
supernatural beings are deemed as potentially dangerous as well as helpful. The ordinary
people cannot see Konda devta, but there are magicians and shamans, who can
communicate with supernatural forces in dreams as well as in a state of trance. The effect
of Shiva (a Hindu god) is also visible.
Economy
They depend on slash and burn (shifting) cultivation. Traditionally, the economy of the
Reddis is based on the periodic felling of the forest and the cultivation of various millets,
maize, pulses and vegetables in the resulting clearing. Podu (type of tillage, in which the
axe and not the plough is the primary instrument) is in common practice. Reddi
agriculture represents a crude form of cultivation as may be found anywhere on the
Asiatic mainland. Reddis subsist on wild forest produce, eating the sago-like pith of the
caryota palm or the kernel of mango stones. They also hunt with bows and arrows and
those living on the banks of the Godavari river supplement their food supply by fishing in
dugout canoes.
Traditionally the ownership of the land was vested in local groups, whose members may
hunt, collect and cultivate anywhere within the territory belonging to the community.
Education
1.7% are taking primary education. Due to residing in the forest and hills, their lifestyle is
still traditional.
The improvement of communications in recent years has made the Reddis habitat
accessible to outsiders. The commercial exploitation of the forests has brought about a
change in their living style and has involved the loss of freedom and independence of
their traditional life-style.
Kolam tribe
Kolam
(Southern Region)
The tribe of Kolam is living in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh with a population
of 4,409 (1991 census) and their sex ratio is 1:1.
Their physical features are Dravidian (black skin color, medium stature, black eye and
hair).
Kolam in the eastern part of the Adilabad district speak Telugu and the rest of tem speak
Marathi. Both the languages are of Dravidian language family. In the variety of spoken
language, Kolam living in adjoining regions cannot communicate with each other.
It is a patriarchal society (society headed by a male member).
Birth Ceremony
No special ceremony is performed. They worship Ayak (the main god of the tribe) at the
time of the child’s birth.
Marriage Ceremony
Kolam is an exogamous group (all those who belong to the same gotra are considered as
brothers and sisters). Service marriage is prevalent, but elopement marriage (due to the
inability to pay bride wealth) and consent marriages also exist. Paiya (bride wealth) is the
locus of the settlement of the marriage. Ayak is worshipped and after the completion of
the marriage (lasting four days), khe dinner is given to the community. The social
organization of the Kolams is bound to a system of exogamous patrilineal descent group,
each of which is associated with an ancestral territory and a common cult culture.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Khe (dinner) is offered to Ayak and on the third day Che ritual
(departure of the soul from this materialistic world) is celebrated with khe.
Religion
Intimately linked with the system of localized patrilineal clan is cult of a deity known in
Kolami as Ayak (in Gond, Ayak is known as Bhimal and in Telugu as Bhimana). Within
a territory of the Ayak, there is a shrine of Ayak. In the chaos created by the expulsion of
the Kolams from the areas of reserved forest, these Ayak shrines (every clan has its
Ayak) remain the only focal points of clan unity. For all Kolams, unless totally
detribalized, return to the ancestral Ayak shrine for the performance of important rites,
when the living members of the clan are united in worship and the dead of the clan are
propitiated with offering. The care of each Ayak shrine is the responsibility of the clan
priest, whose office is hereditary in the male line. Once every three or four years the
symbols of Ayak may be taken on a circuit and visit all the Kolam villages within a
radius of twenty or more miles. Ayak is considered as a benevolent god.
Pujari (a member of the Gond tribe) does all sacred duties of Kolams. Kolams are very
far from Hindu deities, yet they worship Sun (a Hindu god).
Economy
Kolams still practice slash and burn cultivation and their agricultural methods are
primitive. They still use a small hoe with an iron spike affixed by the means of a socket
to a knee-shaped shaft. They also use the hoe for digging up edible roots (a good source
of earning). Their economy is a victim of poverty, due to their primitive life style.
Property is inherited from father to son.
Education
1.9% of Kolams are taking primary education, 0.7% are taking junior education. One
primary and two junior high schools are in their locality. Poverty is the main cause of the
unawareness for education.
Kolams living in Adilabad district and Gond (an advanced tribe) are living near to each
other. So a mixture culture is visible among them. They have started a settled and
equipment based agriculture with the help from Panchayati raj system and the
cooperative societies of the government. Due to living in the highlands of Adilabad,
modernity is at a very low profile.
(Southern Region)
The tribe of Kolam is living in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh with a population
of 4,409 (1991 census) and their sex ratio is 1:1.
Their physical features are Dravidian (black skin color, medium stature, black eye and
hair).
Kolam in the eastern part of the Adilabad district speak Telugu and the rest of tem speak
Marathi. Both the languages are of Dravidian language family. In the variety of spoken
language, Kolam living in adjoining regions cannot communicate with each other.
It is a patriarchal society (society headed by a male member).
Birth Ceremony
No special ceremony is performed. They worship Ayak (the main god of the tribe) at the
time of the child’s birth.
Marriage Ceremony
Kolam is an exogamous group (all those who belong to the same gotra are considered as
brothers and sisters). Service marriage is prevalent, but elopement marriage (due to the
inability to pay bride wealth) and consent marriages also exist. Paiya (bride wealth) is the
locus of the settlement of the marriage. Ayak is worshipped and after the completion of
the marriage (lasting four days), khe dinner is given to the community. The social
organization of the Kolams is bound to a system of exogamous patrilineal descent group,
each of which is associated with an ancestral territory and a common cult culture.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Khe (dinner) is offered to Ayak and on the third day Che ritual
(departure of the soul from this materialistic world) is celebrated with khe.
Religion
Intimately linked with the system of localized patrilineal clan is cult of a deity known in
Kolami as Ayak (in Gond, Ayak is known as Bhimal and in Telugu as Bhimana). Within
a territory of the Ayak, there is a shrine of Ayak. In the chaos created by the expulsion of
the Kolams from the areas of reserved forest, these Ayak shrines (every clan has its
Ayak) remain the only focal points of clan unity. For all Kolams, unless totally
detribalized, return to the ancestral Ayak shrine for the performance of important rites,
when the living members of the clan are united in worship and the dead of the clan are
propitiated with offering. The care of each Ayak shrine is the responsibility of the clan
priest, whose office is hereditary in the male line. Once every three or four years the
symbols of Ayak may be taken on a circuit and visit all the Kolam villages within a
radius of twenty or more miles. Ayak is considered as a benevolent god.
Pujari (a member of the Gond tribe) does all sacred duties of Kolams. Kolams are very
far from Hindu deities, yet they worship Sun (a Hindu god).
Economy
Kolams still practice slash and burn cultivation and their agricultural methods are
primitive. They still use a small hoe with an iron spike affixed by the means of a socket
to a knee-shaped shaft. They also use the hoe for digging up edible roots (a good source
of earning). Their economy is a victim of poverty, due to their primitive life style.
Property is inherited from father to son.
Education
1.9% of Kolams are taking primary education, 0.7% are taking junior education. One
primary and two junior high schools are in their locality. Poverty is the main cause of the
unawareness for education.
Kolams living in Adilabad district and Gond (an advanced tribe) are living near to each
other. So a mixture culture is visible among them. They have started a settled and
equipment based agriculture with the help from Panchayati raj system and the
cooperative societies of the government. Due to living in the highlands of Adilabad,
modernity is at a very low profile.
Khond tribe
Khond
Khond is one of the largest tribe of Phul bani, Ganjam Korojones and Kalahandi district
of Orrisa with a population of 8,56,547 (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1:1.
It is a Proto australoid racial group, who speaks dravidian language. Khond is a
patriarchal society with the queer characteristic of nuclear family system.
Birth Ceremony
Husband follows the same taboo (prohibition) as his pregnant wife does. Khushi (joy)
ritual is celebrated after the pregnancy. Rang ritual is celebrated at the time of birth. A
bhoj (dinner) is given to the community. Husband and wife follow normal life two
months after the delivery.
Marriage Ceremony
They are exogamous but cross cousin and parallel cousin marriage are preferred. Levirate
and widow marriages are also in practice. Consent, elopement marriages are popular.
Lena (bride wealth) is the locus of marriage. Marriage ceremony starts by mang ritual
(search of a bride) and ends by vidai (departure of the bride). It is monogamous group.
Death Ceremony
They burn dead body. They make Menhir (a stone at cremation site). They believe in soul
and give a dinner on the third day after the death.
Economy
They are engaged in gidia or chara (shifting cultivation). They do also jangam (slope)
cultivation and produce mainly rice and mustard.
Education
Only 0.5% are taking education. Two primary schools are in their locality.
Political organization
Pancham (Panchayat) is prime authority of administration. It is made up of 5 to 7
members it. No body can deny its decision. It hears all disputes like marriage and land
disputes.
Darbar (youth home) is a good source of government agencies for communication and
information.
Religion
They have many traditional gods, goddesses and spirits. Dharani or jakeri penu (goddess
of earth) protects them from evil and brings happiness and prosperity, Jatra Kudi Penka
(god of village) protects village, Aji-budhi Penu (goddess of disease) protects them from
diseases, Hira Penu protects children, Ghungi penu (god of water), Lada penu (god of
hunting). Lahi Penka (protects crops), Llai penu and Sita penu (both are goddesses of
wealth).
Danda penu (spirit) protects the granary. Chhatos Penka, Bhario penka and Barjari penka
are male spirits, which protect them from diseases, epidemics and accidental deaths.
Miali penu (female spirit) causes illness. Suka penku destroys crops.
Hadada munda (ancestor spirit) protects the family. They believe in pangins (witch craft
tradition). Ponga ( black magic) is also in practice.
Festivals
Ghonta praba (harvest festival) celebrated after March-April. Every festival starts on
Friday. It’s spans over three days. Goat is sacrificed. Bhiari puja or Bichahpam. - it is
celebrated at the time of sowing of seeds. Bima penka (god of thunder) is worshipped on
this festival.
Jani Oishri and Bejunis (name of priests) sacrifice animals and do every important ritual.
Meria festival (festival of joy) is celebrated in January-February. They use turmeric and
vermilion in every ritual of all festivals.
They know much about modern life but are not interested in breaking their traditional
life. They understand the government policies and are taking loan for better cultivation.
They have left human head hunting Symbolic sacrifice (goat, buffalo) is in practice.
Khond is one of the largest tribe of Phul bani, Ganjam Korojones and Kalahandi district
of Orrisa with a population of 8,56,547 (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1:1.
It is a Proto australoid racial group, who speaks dravidian language. Khond is a
patriarchal society with the queer characteristic of nuclear family system.
Birth Ceremony
Husband follows the same taboo (prohibition) as his pregnant wife does. Khushi (joy)
ritual is celebrated after the pregnancy. Rang ritual is celebrated at the time of birth. A
bhoj (dinner) is given to the community. Husband and wife follow normal life two
months after the delivery.
Marriage Ceremony
They are exogamous but cross cousin and parallel cousin marriage are preferred. Levirate
and widow marriages are also in practice. Consent, elopement marriages are popular.
Lena (bride wealth) is the locus of marriage. Marriage ceremony starts by mang ritual
(search of a bride) and ends by vidai (departure of the bride). It is monogamous group.
Death Ceremony
They burn dead body. They make Menhir (a stone at cremation site). They believe in soul
and give a dinner on the third day after the death.
Economy
They are engaged in gidia or chara (shifting cultivation). They do also jangam (slope)
cultivation and produce mainly rice and mustard.
Education
Only 0.5% are taking education. Two primary schools are in their locality.
Political organization
Pancham (Panchayat) is prime authority of administration. It is made up of 5 to 7
members it. No body can deny its decision. It hears all disputes like marriage and land
disputes.
Darbar (youth home) is a good source of government agencies for communication and
information.
Religion
They have many traditional gods, goddesses and spirits. Dharani or jakeri penu (goddess
of earth) protects them from evil and brings happiness and prosperity, Jatra Kudi Penka
(god of village) protects village, Aji-budhi Penu (goddess of disease) protects them from
diseases, Hira Penu protects children, Ghungi penu (god of water), Lada penu (god of
hunting). Lahi Penka (protects crops), Llai penu and Sita penu (both are goddesses of
wealth).
Danda penu (spirit) protects the granary. Chhatos Penka, Bhario penka and Barjari penka
are male spirits, which protect them from diseases, epidemics and accidental deaths.
Miali penu (female spirit) causes illness. Suka penku destroys crops.
Hadada munda (ancestor spirit) protects the family. They believe in pangins (witch craft
tradition). Ponga ( black magic) is also in practice.
Festivals
Ghonta praba (harvest festival) celebrated after March-April. Every festival starts on
Friday. It’s spans over three days. Goat is sacrificed. Bhiari puja or Bichahpam. - it is
celebrated at the time of sowing of seeds. Bima penka (god of thunder) is worshipped on
this festival.
Jani Oishri and Bejunis (name of priests) sacrifice animals and do every important ritual.
Meria festival (festival of joy) is celebrated in January-February. They use turmeric and
vermilion in every ritual of all festivals.
They know much about modern life but are not interested in breaking their traditional
life. They understand the government policies and are taking loan for better cultivation.
They have left human head hunting Symbolic sacrifice (goat, buffalo) is in practice.
Khasi tribe
Khasi
It is a headhunting (now totally banned) tribal group of Jayantiya and Khasi hills of state
of Meghalaya. Their concentration is also in Kachhar and Darang districts of Assam.
Their population is 3,86,208 (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1 : 1.2.
They have Mongolian features (eyes with epicanthic fold – a deposit of fat on the eyelids
and prominent cheekbones).
They speak a special Khasi language (it differs from the Tibet-Burma language family),
which is of Man-Khamere language family (similar to the language of Munda tribe of
Bihar).
Khasi live in a joint family and it is a matriarchal society. Family comprises of husband,
wife and female children. The female is the main person in matters of property and
inheritance is from mother to daughter. The husband and the maternal uncles are the
caretakers of the property. Ka-khachu (the selected girl for the property) is not totally free
in the case of decision making. She can’t sell property without the consent of the elder
sisters.
Khasi family is divided into Shikur (gotra – descendents of a real or hypothetical
forefather) and Ka-Lakei (members of a gotra or Shihur) can’t marry to each other.
Shrekh, Tham, Deengrate are the many different names of the Shikur.
Birth Ceremony
Khasi husband and wife follow some taboos (prohibition) during the pregnancy. They
don’t touch any sacred object especially agricultural implements. Khasi male celebrates
Cuvade - after the conception, the husband does the same actions as his wife till the birth
of the child, as his wife suffers from some complications, pain and prohibition regarding
the impurity of the pregnant lady. The husband can’t touch any sacred object (plough,
seeds, etc) and can’t worship his traditional god. Six days after the birth of the child they
give a feast and follow a normal life.
Marriage Ceremony
Marriage within a Shikur (gotra) is a taboo among the Khasi. They are monogamous. In
the marriage, the bride wears Kajampean (a piece of cloth which covers the waist and the
breasts) and Kajaikup (a piece of cloth around the neck of the bride). She covers her head
with Ka-taip-moh-saleeh (a piece of cloth). The groom wear Ka-jainvesen (a piece of
cloth around his waist) and a Dopalia (headgear). During the dinner, they give Kha-id-
Um (a kind of wine made of cereals and Ukhavi chang plant).
After the marriage, the husband lives in his wife’s home and after having one or two
children they make a separate home near their in-laws home. Except for Ka-khachhuh
(the daughter who inherits parental property) lives with her parents after the birth of the
children.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Before the cremation, they put an egg (it is believed to be a
sign of rebirth) near the dead body and sacrifice a hen. They collect the remains of the
dead person and make a menhir (a big straight stone) which is put on the remains of the
dead person. On the third day, they give a feast as a farewell to the departed soul.
Religion
They are nature worshippers. They have faith in benevolent and malevolent spirits. They
worship Ulei-muluk (area god), Ulei-umtang (water god), Ulei-syah (monkey god), Uranagkev
(village god). Every god is worshipped once in a year. At that time, goat and
hen are sacrificed. They worship different spirits as Kareeh for malaria, Duka for cholera.
At the time of war, they sacrifice goat and hen to worship their warrior god. Men were
sacrificed before the Indian independence, but now it is totally banned.
They are converting to Christianity in lieu of financial rewards.
Education
23% Khasi are literate. They prefer traditional work to working in government jobs or
private establishments. Three primary schools and two intermediate schools are situated
in their area.
Economy
Khasi are mainly engaged in west paddy cultivation (to check water in a field required for
paddy production) and shifting cultivation (they burn trees of the jungle and sow seeds in
the ashes), but due to the expansion of education they are adopting silk work (47 %).
Their economy is also based on fishing. They produce potato, tomato, betel and betel
nuts. They have started cotton work in great numbers (36%). They are engaged in
handicraft work.
They are taking government and financial aid for their betterment, due to the effect of
Panchayati Raj. They are taking loans (23 %) for silk and cotton work, which is making
their improving their overall condition.
It is a headhunting (now totally banned) tribal group of Jayantiya and Khasi hills of state
of Meghalaya. Their concentration is also in Kachhar and Darang districts of Assam.
Their population is 3,86,208 (1991 census). Their sex ratio is 1 : 1.2.
They have Mongolian features (eyes with epicanthic fold – a deposit of fat on the eyelids
and prominent cheekbones).
They speak a special Khasi language (it differs from the Tibet-Burma language family),
which is of Man-Khamere language family (similar to the language of Munda tribe of
Bihar).
Khasi live in a joint family and it is a matriarchal society. Family comprises of husband,
wife and female children. The female is the main person in matters of property and
inheritance is from mother to daughter. The husband and the maternal uncles are the
caretakers of the property. Ka-khachu (the selected girl for the property) is not totally free
in the case of decision making. She can’t sell property without the consent of the elder
sisters.
Khasi family is divided into Shikur (gotra – descendents of a real or hypothetical
forefather) and Ka-Lakei (members of a gotra or Shihur) can’t marry to each other.
Shrekh, Tham, Deengrate are the many different names of the Shikur.
Birth Ceremony
Khasi husband and wife follow some taboos (prohibition) during the pregnancy. They
don’t touch any sacred object especially agricultural implements. Khasi male celebrates
Cuvade - after the conception, the husband does the same actions as his wife till the birth
of the child, as his wife suffers from some complications, pain and prohibition regarding
the impurity of the pregnant lady. The husband can’t touch any sacred object (plough,
seeds, etc) and can’t worship his traditional god. Six days after the birth of the child they
give a feast and follow a normal life.
Marriage Ceremony
Marriage within a Shikur (gotra) is a taboo among the Khasi. They are monogamous. In
the marriage, the bride wears Kajampean (a piece of cloth which covers the waist and the
breasts) and Kajaikup (a piece of cloth around the neck of the bride). She covers her head
with Ka-taip-moh-saleeh (a piece of cloth). The groom wear Ka-jainvesen (a piece of
cloth around his waist) and a Dopalia (headgear). During the dinner, they give Kha-id-
Um (a kind of wine made of cereals and Ukhavi chang plant).
After the marriage, the husband lives in his wife’s home and after having one or two
children they make a separate home near their in-laws home. Except for Ka-khachhuh
(the daughter who inherits parental property) lives with her parents after the birth of the
children.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Before the cremation, they put an egg (it is believed to be a
sign of rebirth) near the dead body and sacrifice a hen. They collect the remains of the
dead person and make a menhir (a big straight stone) which is put on the remains of the
dead person. On the third day, they give a feast as a farewell to the departed soul.
Religion
They are nature worshippers. They have faith in benevolent and malevolent spirits. They
worship Ulei-muluk (area god), Ulei-umtang (water god), Ulei-syah (monkey god), Uranagkev
(village god). Every god is worshipped once in a year. At that time, goat and
hen are sacrificed. They worship different spirits as Kareeh for malaria, Duka for cholera.
At the time of war, they sacrifice goat and hen to worship their warrior god. Men were
sacrificed before the Indian independence, but now it is totally banned.
They are converting to Christianity in lieu of financial rewards.
Education
23% Khasi are literate. They prefer traditional work to working in government jobs or
private establishments. Three primary schools and two intermediate schools are situated
in their area.
Economy
Khasi are mainly engaged in west paddy cultivation (to check water in a field required for
paddy production) and shifting cultivation (they burn trees of the jungle and sow seeds in
the ashes), but due to the expansion of education they are adopting silk work (47 %).
Their economy is also based on fishing. They produce potato, tomato, betel and betel
nuts. They have started cotton work in great numbers (36%). They are engaged in
handicraft work.
They are taking government and financial aid for their betterment, due to the effect of
Panchayati Raj. They are taking loans (23 %) for silk and cotton work, which is making
their improving their overall condition.
Halba tribe
Halba
It is a central India tribe of Baster district of Madhaya Pradesh State. It’s population is
50,000 (1991 census) and sex ratio is 1:1.
Their physical features are Proto-australoid type (narrow head and nose, brown skin
color).
They speak Halbi language. This language is spoken by many other adjacent
communities who are non tribal. Government is also using this language for spreading
information among them.
Halba is a patriarchal society, where the property is inherited from father to son.
Kinga, Batla, Guruka are their gotra and many other subgroups of every gotra is also in
their life. They live in nuclear family system.
Birth Ceremony
Janmore (birth ritual) is celebrated at the time of birth and a biradari bhoj & liquor (made
by from mahua) is given, if they get a male child. No ritual is concerned with female
issue. Varjana (taboo) is in practice during pregnancy. The pregnant woman can’t touch
any sacred object of her home.
Marriage Ceremony
It is monogamous society. Where consent and service marriage are in practice, they
prefer Dudh Lautava marriage (patrilineal cross cousin marriage). Child marriage is
totally prohibited.
Divorce is in practice but woman can’t obtain divorce. It is the right of Halba male. A
divorced woman can’t marry with unmarried male. She can only remarry with a widower
or a divorced man. Kharcha (bride wealth) is returned to the bride at the time of divorce.
Widow can’t marry with unmarried male.
Mahala, a ritual is concerned with a search of a bride and her consent marriage. This
ritual is followed by kharcha (bride wealth), which should be paid before the settlement
of marriage. Kharcha is decided by their panchayat according the economic condition of
both sides. Muhurt is the setting of date of marriage which is decided by Panjiyar (the
oldest person of the community – the priest is absent among them). He decides day and
time of marriage but his presence at the time of marriage in prohibited. Mandapam is
concerned in manufacturing of liquor (made from Mahua seeds) and all other rituals are
also performed under the mandapam. Brother-in-law or any parallel relative of
bridegroom acts as the priest and does all the sacred duties. The flames of two candles are
mixed to each other it is sign of completion of marriage. Lamsena (a person who is
unable to give bride wealth to bride’s father) does service of the parents of the bride
equivalent to bride wealth (example of service marriage). The span of service may be 3 to
7 years.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Vidai, a single ritual is concerned with farewell of soul of dead
person on the tenth day after the death. Mahua liquor, rice and meat are offered to soul
and community men.
Panchayat is in existence, which decides bride wealth in every marriage and hears every
dispute regarding marriage, land etc.
Religion
Halba worship all Hindu gods and goddesses, but Buiadevi (goddess of land) and Karna
Devi (goddess of welfare) are their prime deities.
Economy
They are basically cultivators but due to expansion of education 5% Halba are in service.
Their earnings are good and they are acquiring modern facilities.
Education
Baster district has 3 primary schools and one junior high school in the Halba area. They
are very much aware about education. 27% are literate. They know to write Halba
language.
They are familiar with modern life because government is using their language for
information. It is making a good environment for their development. Traditional
panchayat has been replaced by Panchayat raj system. With the help of financial
assistance they are engaged in home industry as bucket manufacturing, rope making etc.
Now they are semi-tribal due to the influence of education language and acculturation.
It is a central India tribe of Baster district of Madhaya Pradesh State. It’s population is
50,000 (1991 census) and sex ratio is 1:1.
Their physical features are Proto-australoid type (narrow head and nose, brown skin
color).
They speak Halbi language. This language is spoken by many other adjacent
communities who are non tribal. Government is also using this language for spreading
information among them.
Halba is a patriarchal society, where the property is inherited from father to son.
Kinga, Batla, Guruka are their gotra and many other subgroups of every gotra is also in
their life. They live in nuclear family system.
Birth Ceremony
Janmore (birth ritual) is celebrated at the time of birth and a biradari bhoj & liquor (made
by from mahua) is given, if they get a male child. No ritual is concerned with female
issue. Varjana (taboo) is in practice during pregnancy. The pregnant woman can’t touch
any sacred object of her home.
Marriage Ceremony
It is monogamous society. Where consent and service marriage are in practice, they
prefer Dudh Lautava marriage (patrilineal cross cousin marriage). Child marriage is
totally prohibited.
Divorce is in practice but woman can’t obtain divorce. It is the right of Halba male. A
divorced woman can’t marry with unmarried male. She can only remarry with a widower
or a divorced man. Kharcha (bride wealth) is returned to the bride at the time of divorce.
Widow can’t marry with unmarried male.
Mahala, a ritual is concerned with a search of a bride and her consent marriage. This
ritual is followed by kharcha (bride wealth), which should be paid before the settlement
of marriage. Kharcha is decided by their panchayat according the economic condition of
both sides. Muhurt is the setting of date of marriage which is decided by Panjiyar (the
oldest person of the community – the priest is absent among them). He decides day and
time of marriage but his presence at the time of marriage in prohibited. Mandapam is
concerned in manufacturing of liquor (made from Mahua seeds) and all other rituals are
also performed under the mandapam. Brother-in-law or any parallel relative of
bridegroom acts as the priest and does all the sacred duties. The flames of two candles are
mixed to each other it is sign of completion of marriage. Lamsena (a person who is
unable to give bride wealth to bride’s father) does service of the parents of the bride
equivalent to bride wealth (example of service marriage). The span of service may be 3 to
7 years.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body. Vidai, a single ritual is concerned with farewell of soul of dead
person on the tenth day after the death. Mahua liquor, rice and meat are offered to soul
and community men.
Panchayat is in existence, which decides bride wealth in every marriage and hears every
dispute regarding marriage, land etc.
Religion
Halba worship all Hindu gods and goddesses, but Buiadevi (goddess of land) and Karna
Devi (goddess of welfare) are their prime deities.
Economy
They are basically cultivators but due to expansion of education 5% Halba are in service.
Their earnings are good and they are acquiring modern facilities.
Education
Baster district has 3 primary schools and one junior high school in the Halba area. They
are very much aware about education. 27% are literate. They know to write Halba
language.
They are familiar with modern life because government is using their language for
information. It is making a good environment for their development. Traditional
panchayat has been replaced by Panchayat raj system. With the help of financial
assistance they are engaged in home industry as bucket manufacturing, rope making etc.
Now they are semi-tribal due to the influence of education language and acculturation.
Gond tribe
Gond
It is one of the largest tribal population of India which is mainly living in Mandala,
Sivani, Chhindawada and Baitul district of Madhya Pradesh state and Sambalpur,
Kalahaandi, Ballangeer, Koraput districts of Orissa state with a large population
49,48,795 (1991 census) sex ration among them is 1:1.5
Koitar (Gond) are divided in many tribal subgroups as Muria, Maria, Bhanna, Praja,
Rajgond, Rajkorak, Nayaak Gond.
They speak their Gondi language, which is accepted by the government for
communication among them. This language is of Dravidian family.
They have pre-dravidian features (round face, puffy lips, and broad nose). They have a
patriarchal society. They prefer nuclear family, the eldest person of being the leader of
the family. Sexual difference is visible among the families.
Birth ritual
Janma ritual is celebrated at the time of birth. Pregnant women cannot touch any scared
object after the third month of pregnancy.
Marriage Ceremony
It is gotra exogamous monogamy group. Consent marriage and service marriages are the
two types of marriages among them. In case of issue less family, second marriage is
permitted. Levirate and widow marriages are in practice. Bride wealth is a prime base of
marriage, which is decided according to the economical condition of the family.
Vermilion is the final sign of the marriage.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body but it differs according to economic condition of dead person’s
family (if the dead person is poor, he is buried). They honor the soul of dead person and
give a dinner on the tenth day of the death. They make a Menhir (a big stone which is put
at the burial site one month after the death. Pig or cow is sacrificed differentiating them
from Hindus for whom cow is sacred animal and no Hindu eats beef.
Political organization
They have traditional Panchyat that is formed by 2 to 5 members of a village. Gaita
(head) hears every matter and decide the penalty, Gaita is responsible for all religious
work while other members are concerned with general matters.
Religion
They worship earth, village goddess and Kavila god (welfare God). They worship earth
as goddess in every cultural life. Shiva (Hindu God) and Parvati(hindu goddess, wife of
Lord Shiva) is also worshipped.
Economy
Panda (shifting cultivation) is the main source of their livelihood but most of them are
now engaged in permanent cultivation. They produce many cereals (Moong, Urad
(pulses), rice). They are engaged in hunting. They are manufacturing bow, arrow, axe etc.
They are earning money by animal husbandry (pig, deer, etc). Hens and eggs are the
major source of their earnings.
Education
Gond are very aware about education. 13% are educated. Many high school and
intermediate college (more than one dozen) is spread in their living districts.
Gotul (youth home) is the locus of their cultural lives. Unmarried boys and girls live here
and take many training including sexual education. Nowadays government is using this
Gotul for their communication and information.
Due the effect acculturation and education they understand the modern world. Today
Gond are living quasi life (semi rural and semi urban). They are taking government
financial assistance (19%) for their betterment.
Agaria, Aandh, Bhumia, Bhuihar, Bhatra, Birhual, Dhanwar, Gadba, Korakce, Korwa,
Manjhi, Majhwar, Mawari are the other tribal groups of central India who have almost
same socio- economic life as Gond have.
It is one of the largest tribal population of India which is mainly living in Mandala,
Sivani, Chhindawada and Baitul district of Madhya Pradesh state and Sambalpur,
Kalahaandi, Ballangeer, Koraput districts of Orissa state with a large population
49,48,795 (1991 census) sex ration among them is 1:1.5
Koitar (Gond) are divided in many tribal subgroups as Muria, Maria, Bhanna, Praja,
Rajgond, Rajkorak, Nayaak Gond.
They speak their Gondi language, which is accepted by the government for
communication among them. This language is of Dravidian family.
They have pre-dravidian features (round face, puffy lips, and broad nose). They have a
patriarchal society. They prefer nuclear family, the eldest person of being the leader of
the family. Sexual difference is visible among the families.
Birth ritual
Janma ritual is celebrated at the time of birth. Pregnant women cannot touch any scared
object after the third month of pregnancy.
Marriage Ceremony
It is gotra exogamous monogamy group. Consent marriage and service marriages are the
two types of marriages among them. In case of issue less family, second marriage is
permitted. Levirate and widow marriages are in practice. Bride wealth is a prime base of
marriage, which is decided according to the economical condition of the family.
Vermilion is the final sign of the marriage.
Death Ceremony
They burn the dead body but it differs according to economic condition of dead person’s
family (if the dead person is poor, he is buried). They honor the soul of dead person and
give a dinner on the tenth day of the death. They make a Menhir (a big stone which is put
at the burial site one month after the death. Pig or cow is sacrificed differentiating them
from Hindus for whom cow is sacred animal and no Hindu eats beef.
Political organization
They have traditional Panchyat that is formed by 2 to 5 members of a village. Gaita
(head) hears every matter and decide the penalty, Gaita is responsible for all religious
work while other members are concerned with general matters.
Religion
They worship earth, village goddess and Kavila god (welfare God). They worship earth
as goddess in every cultural life. Shiva (Hindu God) and Parvati(hindu goddess, wife of
Lord Shiva) is also worshipped.
Economy
Panda (shifting cultivation) is the main source of their livelihood but most of them are
now engaged in permanent cultivation. They produce many cereals (Moong, Urad
(pulses), rice). They are engaged in hunting. They are manufacturing bow, arrow, axe etc.
They are earning money by animal husbandry (pig, deer, etc). Hens and eggs are the
major source of their earnings.
Education
Gond are very aware about education. 13% are educated. Many high school and
intermediate college (more than one dozen) is spread in their living districts.
Gotul (youth home) is the locus of their cultural lives. Unmarried boys and girls live here
and take many training including sexual education. Nowadays government is using this
Gotul for their communication and information.
Due the effect acculturation and education they understand the modern world. Today
Gond are living quasi life (semi rural and semi urban). They are taking government
financial assistance (19%) for their betterment.
Agaria, Aandh, Bhumia, Bhuihar, Bhatra, Birhual, Dhanwar, Gadba, Korakce, Korwa,
Manjhi, Majhwar, Mawari are the other tribal groups of central India who have almost
same socio- economic life as Gond have.
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